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Dairy 
Farming 

BY 

D. S. Burch 

State Dairy Commissioner of Kansas 



WHAT COWS TO BUY, HOW TO 
HOUSE, FEED, AND CARE FOR 
THEM AND MAKE DAIRYING PAY 



Philadelphia 
The Penn Publishing Company 

1912 









Copyright 1912 by The Penn Publishing Company 






NO. I 



&CI.A312363 



Contents 

CHAP. PAGE 

Introduction, Dairying, the In- 
dustry of Immediate Cash Ee- 
turns . . . . . . 7 

I. Who May Succeed in Dairying ! 12 

II. How to Select a Dairy Farm . 15 

III. Which Breeds are the Best and 

Why 20 

IV. How to Choose a Dairy Cow . 31 
Y. Housing an Equipment . . 42 

VI. Solving the Help Problem . 58 

VII. Points on Milking ... 65 

VIII. Practicability of Milking Ma- 
chines 68 

IX. Feeding and Managing the Herd 78 

X. Testing Milk for Richness and 

Purity 89 

XI. Sanitation and Care of Milk . 98 

XII. Certified Milk and Its Produc- 
tion 107 

XIII. The Science of Bottled Milk . Ill 

XIV. Milk Inspection and Its Purpose 116 
XV. Dairy Butter — How to Make the 

Best 119 

3 



CONTENTS 



XVI. Is Farm Cheese Making Prac- 
tical? 133 

XVII. The Truth About the Tuber- 
culin Test 138 

XVIII. Dairy Organizations . . .149 
XIX. How and Why the Dairy Mar- 
kets Fluctuate .... 157 
XX. Why Oleomargarine is Inferior 

to Butter 164 

XXI. The Creamery Promoter and 

His Tactics .... 169 

XXII. Dairy Farm Fertility . . 175 

XXIII. Dairy Accounts .... 182 

XXIV. Dairying for Health and 

Wealth 188 

XXV. Dairygrams, Proverbs of Unlim- 
ited Application . . . 190 
XXVI. Some Common Dairy Terms . . 192 
Index 205 



Dairy Farming 



INTRODUCTION 

DAIRYING, THE INDUSTRY OF IMMEDIATE 
CASH RETURNS 

A cow's breath has been said to be the sweetest 
of all known things, and while such an abstract 
quantity cannot be compared with more concrete 
substances for relative sweetness, we must grant 
that in many ways the dairy cow is a remarkable 
and wonderful creature. Not only is this true, so 
far as we are able to measure her value in dollars 
and cents, but also her unique position as the 
foster mother of the human race is a position for 
which no other animal has yet been able to suc- 
cessfully compete. On the stock exchanges and 
in the great markets, we so constantly hear wheat 
and grains discussed that the uninitiated in agri- 
cultural matters are likely to form the opinion that 
grain farming is the chief source of agricultural 
wealth in the United States and the world. 

7 



8 DAIRY FARMING 

It is not our purpose to emphasize one branch 
of agriculture at the expense of any other, but 
rather to advise beginners and those unacquainted 
with the various types of agriculture in order that 
they may wisely select the most remunerative 
branch. It has been said that the cow, the hog 
and the hen constitute the foundation of our 
national agricultural wealth. The dairy cow is 
rightly placed at the head of the trio ; she gives 
approximately six hundred crops of milk a year, a 
product for which in its various forms there is an 
unlimited outlet. 

The average man, woman and child in the 
United States consumes over seven-tenths of a pint 
of milk per day or its equivalent in the form of 
cream. Add to this the butter, cheese, condensed 
milk and sundry dairy products and you have a 
conception of the market open to the dairyman 
and of the possibilities for engaging in and devel- 
oping special branches of the dairy industry. 

Milk dealers of New York City are obliged to 
go as far as two hundred miles into the country 
to purchase sufficient milk to supply their trade, 
and cream is shipped as far as seven hundred 
miles into that metropolis. What is true of New 
York is, in a smaller way, true of all large cities. 



DAIRY FARMING 9 

In fact the situation is becoming one of transpor- 
tation rather than of production, since dairymen 
living within a short distance of cities have long 
ago lost hope of being able to compete with the 
demand. 

The Markets Are Consistently Good 

In a similar wav, creameries and cheese fac- 
tories are unable to supply the demand for the 
manufactured products, butter and cheese. 

Therefore thousands of pounds of butter and 
cheese must be placed in storage every year in 
the height of the season of best production in 
order that the public need not go butter or cheese 
hungry during the fall and winter months, when 
the factories are totally unable to meet the 
demand, owing to the small production of 
milk on the average farm during the winter 
months. 

The consistently high prices of milk, butter and 
kindred dairy products testify to the continuous 
and never glutted market for milk and its prod- 
ucts. The markets are furthermore near at hand 
and of a cash or monthly payment nature. In- 
stead, as in the case of grains, of one crop a year 
dependent on the climate and the weather, the 



10 DAIRY FARMING 

dairy cow yields her milk twice a day for three 
hundred or more days out of the year. 

Throughout the length and breadth of the civi- 
lized world, a quart of fresh milk is practically 
legal tender and with almost as constant a value 
as gold. From any railroad station in the coun- 
try, ship a ten-gallon can of rich cream to almost 
any one of our six thousand creameries, and a 
check for five dollars or more will be forthcoming 
in a few days, accompanied by a request for 
further shipments. 

The Hand Separatoe Plays an Important 

Role 

The general introduction of the small centrifugal 
cream separator for farm use has made possible 
a great development of dairying, for instead of 
shipping the bulky milk either by wagon or rail, 
the farmer is now able to reduce its volume about 
seven times and ship the cream, the most valuable 
part, to whatever market he may choose and retain 
the skim-milk on the farm for feeding purposes. 
Again, the rapid growth of the ice-cream industry 
offers a wide and favorable market for the dairy- 
man who is in a position to produce pure sweet 
cream. 



DAIRY FARMING 11 

While the problems of production of farm 
products are now fairly well solved as a result 
of the labors of the state and federal scientists, 
profitable marketing of farm products has not yet 
been thoroughly worked out in a practical way — 
with the exception of the dairy industry. In this 
case, the market is practically constant and usually 
satisfactory. This advantage makes dairying the 
main prop of the renter of small means, the city 
man about to move to a farm and the farmer who 
requires a steady cash income throughout the year. 



CHAPTER I 
WHO MAY SUCCEED IN DAIRYING? 

Before investing capital or labor in any line 
of business, to which dairying is no exception, the 
prospective investor of course considers first the 
probable chances for success and the dividends 
which he may reasonably expect to secure on his 
investment. The question therefore " Who May 
Succeed In Dairying ? " is vital. 

Success is here considered in a financial way 
rather than in its more delicate ethical sense. 
Those who are best able to succeed in dairying 
should possess a general knowledge of all farm 
operations. In addition to this they must be 
familiar with the feeding and management of a 
dairy herd, even though help is hired to perform 
the actual work. They must have sufficient busi- 
ness ability to make the necessary purchases to 
the best advantage and to select the most profit- 
able markets. They must be receptive of up-to- 
date methods, the demands of the trade, and the 
importance of a uniformly high quality of product. 

12 



DAIRY FARMING 13 

They must have a reasonable amount of capital, 
land and equipment. They must understand and 
appreciate the importance of sanitation and be 
able to discriminate between the essential and the 
non-essential in operations bearing on sanitation. 
They should have a deep human interest in their 
work and, aside from a financial aspect, should 
take personal interest in every animal in the herd. 
The successful dairyman soon develops an affec- 
tion for his well-groomed and soft-eyed cows. 

Business Ability is Essential 
While the wise selection of the farm, of stock 
and of hired help are important determining 
factors in success, the man who is a lover of 
animals has much in his favor. Any good busi- 
ness man or a student of the world may succeed 
in dairying, but a knowledge of the principles of 
animal breeding, and an understanding of the 
" why " of the various operations as well as the 
" how " are of inestimable benefit in reducing the 
number of errors in case one is a beginner. 

On every dairy farm there are also a great 
many seemingly non-essential details which should 
be mastered before one actually engages in the 
business. Among such details may be mentioned 



14 DAIRY FARMING 

the construction and repair of fences, best types 
of stalls, use of fly repellents in summer and care 
and handling of ugly bulls. While these subjects 
will be subsequently discussed as fully as possible, 
any one unfamiliar with dairy farm details and 
about to engage in dairying, can wisely afford to 
hire out for a few months even at very low wages. 

Importance of Both Scientific and Prac- 
tical Knowledge 

In gaining experience in this way, he should, 
however, select a farm on which to work resem- 
bling his own or his prospective farm as closely as 
possible, both as to size and the kind of dairying 
conducted. A short term in one of the numerous 
agricultural colleges or dairy schools, now found 
in every state, will also be of value in a scientific 
as well as a practical way. 

The foregoing remarks and qualifications apply 
chiefly to those of limited dairy experience. As 
the highest success in modern dairying involves 
both a practical and scientific knowledge, it is 
obvious that those with a wide practical experi- 
ence should reinforce their knowledge from scien- 
tific sources, and those with a technical knowledge 
study the more practical side. 



CHAPTER II 

HOW TO SELECT A DAIEY FARM 

On the selection of the dairy farm depends 
not only the success of the investment and the 
size of the financial returns but also, in the major- 
ity of cases, the personal satisfaction derived from 
living amid congenial surroundings. Following 
are a few essential points, gleaned from a wide 
field of experience, which require little comment, 
so self-evident is the dairy wisdom they contain. 

1. Do not buy a farm because it is advertised 
as a bargain. Its cheapness is determined by a 
lack of demand and the lack of demand is gener- 
ally based on one or more important objections 
which either make the farm profitless or uncon- 
genial for human habitation. 

2. Do not assume more than two-thirds in- 
debtedness if you must depend on the farm for a 
living. In case you are unable, after securing the 
necessary stock and equipment, to pay at least one- 
third down, either defer your purchase or rent. 
Simple mathematical computations show the diffi- 

15 



16 DAIRY FARMING 

culty of meeting interest and paying off the prin- 
cipal where less than one-third cash is paid. 

3. Do not purchase a farm for dairy purposes 
without thoroughly investigating the water supply, 
both as to quantity and quality. All live stock 
require an abundant supply of pure water. It is 
desirable that water be available in several differ- 
ent parts of the farm. 

%,. Do not purchase a farm which is incapable 
of growing grass and such forage crops as clover or 
com. Pasture and good hay are almost indispen- 
sable to successful danying under conditions prev- 
alent in the United States. 

5. Be cautious in purchasing a mortgaged 
farm, or one which has been abandoned for a 
number of years. A farm Avhich has been mort- 
gage-ridden for a considerable period of time has 
generally been cropped so heavily and avariciously 
that its productiveness is a very uncertain factor. 
In a similar way an abandoned farm is invariably 
overrun with obnoxious weeds which can be sub- 
dued only at great expense. 

6. Consider carefully the nature of the roads, 
traction facilities and the distance from permanent 
markets. If milk is to be sold for city consump- 
tion it must be delivered daily and good roads 



DAIRY FARMING 



17 



are, of course, essential. If milk or cream is to 
be sold to a creamery or cheese factory, the farm 
should be located within easy reach of several of 
these. In the present stage of dairy development 
an individual creamery or cheese factory is an un- 




II. — A Typical Dairy Farm in Wisconsin showing milk 
house at extreme right, masonry silo at its left, dairy barn 
in center and house at extreme left. 

certain market, as it may shut down permanently 
or at least close for the winter without giving 
notice. Where several creameries or cheese fac- 
tories are within reach, the risk is reduced to a 
minimum. Creameries and cheese factories, how- 
ever, are excellent markets in the respect that 
they will readily take all the product they can 



18 DAIRY FARMING 

secure if the quality is satisfactory, since the 
larger the quantity of business they can do, the 
more economically they can operate. 

7. In determining the size of the dairy farm, 
allow three acres of the total land for each cow. 
The actual amount of pasture may be about one 
acre for each cow, the remaining two acres being 
devoted to crops for winter feeding, reserve pas- 
ture, barn-yards and buildings. In Denmark, 
Holland, and certain other parts of Europe, where 
dairying is conducted on a very intensive basis, 
the cows are kept in the stable the greater part of 
the time. This practice enables more land to be 
devoted to forage crops and more cows may be 
kept. Imitations of this system have not been 
financially successful in the United States, owing 
to the much greater cost of hired help in this 
country. Pasturing eliminates, to a great extent, 
the hauling of feed to the barns, the hauling 
away of manure and the care incident to habitual 
stall feeding. 

8. Consider the opportunities you will have to 
secure hired help. Dairy farming, especially when 
conducted on a large scale, involves the problems 
of securing and keeping competent and reliable 
help. Therefore, consider carefully the possibil- 



DAIRY FARMING 19 

ities of securing help locally, as bringing it in 
from the outside or advertising for it is not only 
expensive but is often unsatisfactory. 

9. Look into the social life of the community. 
One's neighbors are more important in the country 
than in the city, and the selection of social life in 
the country is virtually a selection of the country 
itself. Learn the prevailing nationality of your 
neighbors and their ideals and consider the ad- 
vantages or probable nature of your social life 
from the standpoint of your hired help as well as 
of yourself. 

10. Lastly, look into the legality of the title 
and secure expert advice as to the terms of pur- 
chase. The legal details of transferring real estate 
and the basis for estimating land values, taxes and 
insurance vary in different states and communities. 
These should, of course, be investigated before, 
not after, the land has been purchased. 

The foregoing rules and requirements may seem 
to the reader, at first glance, extremely rigid. 
Not so ; they exclude only the worst farms, so 
many of which are a drug on the real estate 
market. Of good farms there are plenty, waiting 
only for brainy and energetic management. 



CHAPTER III 
WHICH BEEEDS ARE THE BEST AND WHY 

Every breed of cattle has been developed and 
perfected with a certain goal in view. That is, 
breeders have, by careful selection and mating, 
made cattle adapted for specialized purposes. 

The following are the principal breeds of cattle 
and the purposes for which they are used : 

Milk Milk and Beef Beef 

Jersey Shorthorn Hereford 

Guernsey Brown Swiss Aberdeen Angus 

Holstein Polled Durhams Galloway 

Ayrshire Red Polls Devons 

The foregoing classification applies to the 
average type of cow of each breed. Individuals 
and special " strains " of any breed frequently 
show characteristics which place them in a class 
to which the breed as a whole does not belong. 

The choice of breed for dairy purposes is gen- 
erally made from the first column and wisely so, 

20 



DAIRY FARMING 21 

for these breeds have, for the past half century, 
attracted favorable attention as heavy milk pro- 
ducers. The center group includes breeds com- 
monly known as general purpose or dual-purpose 
animals. Such breeds are adapted to the pioneer 
farmer or the man who engages in general farm- 
ing and desires cows which require but a small 
amount of attention and still produce enough 
milk for the home table. 

The dual-purpose animal has been criticized by 
many so-called farm specialists as being an at- 
tempt at a jack-of-all-trades in cow circles. Still, 
the valuable services which the breeds of the 
second group have given to the man engaged in 
general farming testify strongly to the merits and 
usefulness of these breeds in their proper place. 
In fact, more than seventy-five per cent, of the 
butter produced in creameries in the central West 
is derived from milk of dual-purpose cows, chiefly 
Shorthorns. The third group consists of breeds 
found chiefly on the great beef cattle ranches 
and stock farms, and may be dismissed from con- 
sideration by the dairy farmer. 

The breeds in the first group from which the 
choice is generally made by experienced dairymen 
have the following origin and characteristics. 



22 



DAIRY FARMING 



Jerseys 

The Jersey cow originated on the Island of 
Jersey, in the English Channel, about thirteen 
miles from the French coast, and forty miles from 
the southern end of Great Britain. The Jerseys 
were recognized as a breed about the year 1750, 




III.— A Promising Two- Year-Old Jersey. 

but not till a century later did importations to 
the United States become active. Since then the 
breed has grown rapidly in popularity, and the 
name of Jersey cow is known wherever dairy 
cows are kept. 



DAIRY FARMING 23 

The chief characteristics of the Jerseys are the 
richness of their milk, their small size and docile 
disposition. Their milk is often too rich in fat 
for their own calves, but for a select market milk 
trade, Jersey milk is very desirable. The average 
weight of Jersey cows is about eight hundred 
and fifty pounds, and their small size results in 
economy of stable space. The bulls average 
about sixteen hundred pounds in weight. Pure- 
bred Jerseys vary in color, though shades of tan, 
fawn and yellow are the most prevalent. The 
head is small, eyes large and placid. The Jersey 
cow is light and graceful in movement, in fact, 
well-bred animals are distinctly- aristocratic in 
their actions and appearance. Success with Jersey 
cattle depends largely upon proper housing and 
gentleness, as they are not as vigorous as some of 
the other breeds, and their nervous system is 
highly developed and sensitive. In the Jersey 
bulls, this characteristic of the breed is exhibited 
by fractiousness, especially when improperly 
handled, and old Jersey bulls frequently become 
ugly without apparent cause. 

Jerseys, as a breed, are spare of flesh, a desir- 
able dairy quality, but for this reason their carcasses 
are little valued for beef. 



24 DAIRY FARMING 

GlJEKNSEYS 

The Guernsey breed of cattle, which originated 
in the Island of Guernsey, also one of the Chan- 
nel Islands, bears a strong resemblance to the 
Jerseys. In fact, both of these breeds are fre- 
quently referred to as Alderney cattle. Guern- 
seys were recognized as a breed about 1850, and 






IV. — Guernsey, showing typical markings. 

importations to the United States began about 
1875. The breed has found favor rapidly wherever 
introduced and properly handled. 
Guernsey cattle are slightly larger and heavier 



DAIRY FARMING 25 

than Jerseys, somewhat coarser in appearance, 
though still very attractive. Their color is much 
the same as the Jerseys, though more often in 
patches, especially on the lower part of the body 
and legs. The cows give large quantities of milk, 
its richness, however, being somewhat less than 
that of Jerseys. Guernseys are gentle, quiet, 
easily managed, and these qualities are observable, 
to a less degree, even in the bulls. Both the 
Guernsey and Jersey breeds are noted for the rich 
yellow color of the milk and cream and butter 
made therefrom. The fat globules in their milk 
are relatively larger and separate more readily 
than those of other breeds of cattle. 

Holsteins 

The Holstein breed, though known in the 
United States under various names, is readily dis- 
tinguished from other breeds by the characteristic 
black and white markings. In fact, they are 
frequently referred to in untechnical language as 
Blacks and Whites, although the more exact names 
are Holstein Friesians, Dutch Cattle or Holland 
Cattle. 

As the last name implies, the cattle originated 
in Holland and from the beginning of the Chris- 



26 



DAIRY FARMING 



tian era the breed has been constantly developed 
and improved. Owing to lowland pastures and 
the rich luxuriant grasses which have constituted 
the feed of Holstein cattle for centuries, they have 
developed large frames with a great capacity for 
milk production. 




V. — A Well-Formed Holstein. 



The Holsteins are perhaps the most pictur- 
esque of all dairy cattle. The Dutch make pets 
of their cattle, and as a result they have a quiet 
and docile disposition and are easily handled. 

They are the largest of the dairy breeds and are 



DAIRY FARMING 27 

noted for remarkable records of milk production. 
The milk is less rich, both in total solids and the 
percentage of fat, than any of the principal dairy 
breeds. 

The fat does not rise readily from the milk, 
owing to the small size of the fat globules. This 
characteristic of the milk makes it appear less rich 
than it actually is, but nevertheless, the consum- 
ing public is somewhat prejudiced against Hol- 
stein milk since they believe it less nourishing 
than a milk which produces more cream on 
standing or is of a yellower color. The chief in- 
fluence which has lately begun to have a counter- 
effect upon the public sentiment referred to has 
been the efforts of Holstein breeders along adver- 
tising lines to show the public that Holstein milk 
is very rich in tissue- and muscle-building proper- 
ties. This claim is true, yet, were Holstein 
milk richer and of a higher yellow color, the 
breed would doubtless be a great deal more 
popular than it now is -among producers of milk 
for city consumption. 

As a matter of fact, the Holstein cow gives 
enough more milk than the other breeds to create 
a total butterfat production of very creditable 
amount. The world's record for the amount of 



28 



DAIRY FARMING 



butterfat produced in a year by a single animal 
has been held for several years by Holstein cows. 

Ayrshires 

The Ayrshire breed originated in and is named 
after the county of Ayrshire in southern Scot- 




VI. — The Ayrshire, alert aud active. 

land. The country is rolling and the climate 
rugged. As a result Ayrshire cattle possess more 
stamina, as a breed, than any of the others men- 
tioned. The breed has developed and has been 
raised into prominence since about the year 1825. 
The most striking characteristic of the Ayrshire 



DAIRY FARMING 29 

cow is her ability to thrive on coarse feed and 
rough and scantily covered pasture-land. In size 
and weight the Ayrshire cow slightly exceeds the 
Jersey. The former is fine-boned, active, alert, 
but inclined toward a nervous temperament and is 
less docile than any of the dairy breeds. In color 
the typical Ayrshire is reddish brown splashed 
with white. The head is relatively small and the 
expression bright, almost to wildness. The horns 
have an upward growth with the tips inclined 
backward. 

Compared with the other breeds, the Ayrshire 
cow has a small udder and teats. Breeders have 
been able to remedy these objections and a large 
number of Ayrshire herds now have udders and 
teats of normal size, though not large. Ayrshires 
are good milkers, but the milk is neither of excep- 
tional richness nor is the cream of the rich yellow 
color usually demanded by the trade. 

The relative merits of the four chief dairy breeds 
may be summed up as follows : 

Characteristics of Milk 
Richness Amount Color Keeping Qualities 

1 — Jersey Holstein Jersey Ayrshire 

2 — Guernsey Guernsey Guernsey Holstein 

3 — Ayrshire Ayrshire Ayrshire Guernsey 

4 — Holstein Jersey Holstein Jersey 



30 



DAIRY FARMING 





Characteristics of Animals 






Gentleness Gentleness Constitutional Relative size 


lvalue for 




rf Cows of Bulls Vigor 


of Cows 


Beef 


1— 

2— 
3— 
4— 


Jersey Holsteiu Ayrshire 
Guerusey Ayrshire Holstein 
Holsteiu Guerusey Guernsey 
Ayrshire Jersey Jersey 


Holsteiu 
Guernsey 
Ayrshire 
Jersey 


Ayrshire 
Holstein 
Guernsey 
Jersey 



CHAPTEE IV 
HOW TO CHOOSE A DAIEY COW 

In the selection of cows for the dairy herd it is 
generally customary to look chiefly for product- 
iveness, since productiveness is considered equiva- 
lent to profit. To consider only the amount of 
milk which a cow may produce is not, however, 
dairy wisdom. The chief consideration in the se- 
lection of a dairy cow should be her health, since 
the health of any animal affects not only her own 
value but the value of the entire herd. One of 
the most serious factors in the spread of the ter- 
rible scourge, tuberculosis, has been the indiscrim- 
inate and general introduction of diseased animals 
into healthy herds. 

Tuberculosis cannot be readily detected by a 
superficial examination of the animal in the early 
stages of the disease, yet the animal may at the 
time of the inspection be expelling the invisible 
disease germs. Tuberculosis is not the only 
menace to dairy herds, but its importance is so 
great that every bovine introduced into the herd 

31 



32 DAIRY FARMING 

or brought on the premises for any purpose should 
either be isolated for a period of at least thirty 
days, during which the tuberculin test may be ap- 
plied, or else should be accompanied by a certifi- 
cate from a reputable veterinarian showing that 
the animal is in a healthy condition. The prob- 
lem of controlling tuberculosis in the herd and the 
method of making the tuberculin test will be sub- 
sequently discussed. 

The Principle of Cross-Breeding 
The second consideration of importance in se- 
lecting cows for the dairy herd should be their 
blood origin. There is neither profit nor satisfac- 
tion in conducting a dairy composed of " scrub " 
animals or mixed breeds, however well their per- 
formances at the pail at any particular time seem 
to justify their place in the herd. It is note- 
worthy that the first cross between pure-bred 
animals is often very satisfactory as a milk pro- 
ducer and as a valuable asset to the herd. But, 
when the second cross is made, the amount of 
milk produced generally diminishes and the ani- 
mal is of inferior quality in other respects. If 
cross-breeding is further continued, the dairyman 
who practices it will ultimately have a herd of 



DAIRY FARMING 33 

cows whose value as breeding animals is very un- 
certain. 

Contrast with this condition of affairs the ex- 
periences of wise dairymen, who have started 
their herds with a few pure-bred animals and 
have followed a systematic breeding campaign. 
Their first cows may perhaps not have been un- 
usually large producers, yet, if the sire was from 
a family of profitable cows, the offspring will be 
at least equal and probably superior in value to 
the average between the sire and dam. This 
truth is based on the well-recognized principle 
that nature aspires to perfection. 

Pure-bred Stock is Always in Demand 
Further breeding will result in more pure-bred 
animals, and in view of the fact that a pure-bred 
herd requires no greater amount of expense and 
attention for care and maintenance than one of 
nondescript animals, the breeder will, in a few 
years, be well repaid financially for the line of 
breeding which he has followed. The problem 
of disposing of the male animals will be entirely 
solved, since pure-bred males are in good demand for 
breeding purposes, whereas ill-bred bulls of the dairy 
breeds are almost unsalable even to the butcher. 



34 DAIRY FARMING 

The female calves of pure-bred origin have in 
addition to their probable value as future milk 
producers the additional value of potential breed- 
ers. A study of the advertising columns of dairy 
papers will strongly impress upon the person about 
to engage in dairying the value of pure-bred stock. 
It matters not whether the preference has been 
given to the Holstein or Jersey, to the Ayrshire 
or Guernsey ; the ultimate returns and the satis- 
faction of blooded animals will be equal. Self- 
made men may be in demand, but the poorly bred 
dairy cow, however phenomenal her performances 
may be, is not sought after, because breeders have 
learned that her milk-producing characteristics and 
capacity will probably disappear, on breeding, for 
several generations and the chances of securing 
valuable animals from such a cow are too slight 
to encourage the experiment. 

Young Blood is Best for Foundation Stock 
A third important factor in the selection of a 
dairy cow is her age. However attractive the cow 
may be in conformation, in style and from the 
point of view of past records, if she is old, she is 
not desirable as an addition to the herd. An old 
animal is very likely to be a poor breeder, and 



DAIRY FARMING 35 

expensive to feed. When sent to the block her 
value will be very slight and in a great many ways 
she is undesirable. Young blood, particularly 
good young blood, is as desirable in the dairy 
herd as in all lines of business. 

The factor of productiveness which one is so 
likely to consider first now arises. The true pro- 
duction of a dairy cow can be determined accu- 
rately only by means of the scale and the test. 
The scale tells us the amount of milk she produces 
and the test furnishes information as to the rich- 
ness of the milk. For the market milk trade the 
amount of milk is perhaps the most important, but 
it must be remembered that the certain standards 
of richness must be complied with and the test, 
therefore, should by no means be overlooked. In 
producing milk for butter or cheese factories, both 
factors must always be considered, since such fac- 
tories commonly pay in proportion to the number 
of pounds of butterf at (also called milkf at) delivered. 

Forcing Cows to Make Records 

Milk condenseries pay in accordance with the 
number of pounds of milk delivered, although the 
contract which they have with the producers 
generally specifies that the milk must be of certain 



36 DAIRY FARMING 

richness, four per cent, being the usual standard. 
The records of production which give the true 
value of the dairy cow must extend over a period 
of at least one year. Some breeders, by giving 
their animals stimulating foods and milking them 
three times a day, are able to produce very excep- 
tional weekly or monthly records. 

They seldom, however, furnish the sequel to 
these records, for the reason that the period fol- 
lowing is generally one of recuperation rather 
than of a creditable performance. Records ex- 
tending over a short period of time afford an 
index to the capability of an animal, but are by 
no means as valuable as records of a year's dura- 
tion or more. 

Where records are unobtainable, one must rely 
upon the appearance of the cow in making his 
selection. Like a horse-trade, this manner of buy- 
ing animals is generally in favor of the seller, but 
fortunately a dairy cow has certain indications of 
milk production which cannot be covered up or 
exaggerated. A good milking animal should show 
a tendency toward spareness and under no con- 
sideration should she carry a very large amount 
of fat. The dairyman wishes his feed to be con- 
verted into milk and not into beef. 



DAIRY FARMING 37 

Physical Points of a Good Milker 
Looking at the animal from the head, one should 
seek and should find a broad forehead with large 
mild eyes set far apart. The neck should be thin 
and free of hanging fat. The chest should be well 
developed, yet not prominent. The body of the 
cow, commonly referred to as the barrel, should 
have a large capacity, as it is there that the feed 
is, through a wonderful chemical process, assim- 
ilated and transferred into blood and milk. The 
hip-bones should be prominent and far apart. A 
large capacity in the pelvic region indicates not 
only the probability of the cow being a large milk 
producer but also of being a good breeding animal. 
Now looking at the cow from the side, she should 
appear straight on top, but with the lower line 
sloping toward the rear and suggesting a wedge. 
She should show no indications of being leggy, 
and in the terminology of good dairymen " there 
should be little sunlight under her." Both fore- 
legs and the hindquarters should be well muscled 
and sinewed but free from any more flesh than is 
necessary to comfortably carry the weight of the 
animal. From the rear the cow should show a 
deep, wide, and a well developed udder or bag. 
The teats should be placed far apart and should be 



38 DAIRY FARMING 

of good size. The tail should be long and slender 
in preference to being short and stocky. The ud- 
der should be hung quite high and from the back 
of the flanks in preference to being attached to 
merely the under side of the animal. 

Expert dairymen claim that if the skin of a dairy 
cow is soft, pliable, and oily she is likely to be a 
better milker than if it is hard, thick and unpliable. 
While opinions may be to the contrary, the writer 
is confident that quality and texture of the skin is 
at least an indication of excellence in general. 
The claim that yellow secretions of a waxy or oily 
nature, which may be found in the ears and near 
the roots of the hair, indicates richness and a yel- 
low color in milk is unfounded. 

Study the Animal's Disposition 
The practical dairyman will of course milk a 
cow at least once before purchasing her. A hard 
milker or an animal with an undesirable disposi- 
tion and a tendency to kick is an animal whose 
purchase should be considered at least twice, how- 
ever strong may be her qualifications in other 
respects. 

It must be remembered that a cow must be 
milked before she will yield a profit, and she must 



DAIRY FARMING 39 

be milked not once or twice but twice a day, 
month after month and year after year. 

Considerations of Minor Importance 
Another consideration in the purchase of a dairy 
cow is her color, and her similarity to other animals 
in the herd. While a herd similar in color and 
markings is desirable from the standpoint of 
uniformity, which is an important factor in mak- 
ing sales, color should not be a matter on which 
to be too critical provided one is satisfied that her 
breeding has been along the desired lines. 

Holstein cows, for example, are on the average 
about half white and half black, yet some of the 
most noted individuals depart from this average to 
such an extent that they are almost totally white 
or totally black. The same lack of uniformity of 
color applies to the other breeds as well, though 
not quite so strikingly perhaps. Since dairy cows 
of the same breed show wide differences in color 
or markings, this seemingly important but really 
trivial consideration should not affect the purchase 
of an otherwise meritorious animal. 

The Range of Prices for Desirable 
Animals 
In regard to the prices which one must expect 



40 DAIRY FARMING 

to pay, information can be given in a general way 
only, due to fluctuating factors of supply and de- 
mand, local conditions and current prices of feed- 
ing materials. Pure-bred cows with satisfactory 
records for milk production generally change hands 
for from eighty to two hundred dollars. If an 
animal has been registered, the price is somewhat 
larger. Grade cows bring from forty to one hun- 
dred dollars, and scrubs, or those of nondescript 
breed, seldom exceed forty dollars in value. 

The average value placed upon milch cows by 
government statisticians has ranged from thirty- 
five to fifty dollars during the past ten years. It 
is obvious that the great majority of dairy cows in 
the United States are poorly bred animals owing 
to the unfortunate lack of information prevalent 
among farmers on questions of breeding. 

For a number of years the price of milch cows 
has been steadily increasing, due largely to the 
better prices obtainable for dairy products. Fol- 
lowing are the principal factors which increase 
and decrease the value of milch cattle. 

Factors Which Elevate the Value of 

Dairy Animals 
Certificate showing that the animal has success- 
fully passed the tuberculin test. 



DAIRY FARMING 41 

Authentic records showing creditable yield of 
milk and butterfat. 

An age of between two and eight years. 

A record for being a successful breeding animal. 

A satisfactory pedigree. 

Good crops, general prosperity and abundant 
feed at low prices. 

High prices for dairy products in immediate 
vicinity or in markets easily reached. 

Factors Which Reduce the Value of 
Dairy Animals 

The converse of all the above factors. 

Extreme old age, exceeding eleven years. 

Inability to secure hired help for milking. 

The shutting down of near-by creamery or cheese 
factory or failure of any other important market 
near. 

A serious epidemic in the vicinity or likelihood 
of the presence of tuberculosis in the herd. 

Strict enforcement by the dairy authorities of 
legal requirements to which a considerable percent- 
age of the animals in the vicinity are unable to 
conform. 



CHAPTER V 

HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT 

The dairy business is no exception to the rule 
that profits cannot be made without an invest- 
ment; still, by careful planning, one is able to 
reduce his outlay for buildings and equipment to 
a very modest sum. The value of a dairy barn 
for housing milch cows depends not upon elaborate 
systems of automatically feeding and caring for 
the cows, not upon the number of sacks of cement 
used in its construction, nor upon the skill with 
which the architect planned its artistic appearance. 
The value of a dairy barn depends upon the effi- 
ciency of the ventilating system, upon the means 
which have been devised for reducing the amount 
of dust to a minimum, upon the number and size 
of the windows and upon well arranged and com- 
fortable stalls for the cows. 

The Basement Bakn is Objectionable 

Barn plans are not difficult to make, and it is 
far better to plan the barn for the particular kind 

42 



DAIRY FARMING 



43 



of dairying to be conducted rather than to decide 
upon a particular plan and make the business con- 
form to it. Types of barns vary in different 
climates, but for all purposes, those found in the 
central West are superior to those of any other 
great section. The basement cow stable so prev- 
alent in the eastern states is perhaps the most ob- 
jectionable, and few of them are now built. 




VII. — Waiting to be Milked. — A herd of pure-bred Guernseys 
in a well-drained barn-yard. 

Basement stables with their low ceilings, damp 
floors and dark corners are ideal habitations for 
all the bacteria] diseases to which cows are sub- 
ject, and are extremely unpleasant to work in. 



44 DAIRY FARMING 

The stable should be slightly above the level of 
the surrounding ground, well drained and easily 
approachable from the pasture, without requiring 
the cows to wade through mud and filth just be- 
fore milking time. 

Concrete or Wood ? 

The relative merits of concrete and of wood 
construction will be a matter for the dairyman to 
consider, together with the price of each. Con- 
crete construction is ideal for the foundation and 
the lower portion of the barn, owing to the ease 
with which it can be cleaned and also to the fact 
that it is rat-proof. Concrete construction is, at 
the present time, rather expensive, and no doubt 
always will be. Wood, on the other hand, is a 
perishable building material, but for the purpose 
of the average dairyman it serves and satisfies 
every reasonable need. 

A wooden barn built on a solid concrete founda- 
tion is perhaps the most economical and satis- 
factory where a dairy farm must be put on a 
paying basis in a short time. There are so many 
smaller and important necessities, such as water- 
ing tanks, feeding floors, gutters and the like, that 
where economy must be considered, it is far better 



DAIRY FARMING 45 

to have the latter of concrete than to make the 
barn of concrete and to use inferior material for 
the sundry equipment. 

When a Cement Floor is Permissible 
The stable floor and the stable ceiling are two 
very important considerations in the ideal dairy 
barn. Except in the extreme southern latitudes, 
coavs should not be required to stand or lie on 
cement. Cement is not only slippery when wet 
but it is likely to chill the cow's sensitive milk 
secreting glands if the udder comes in contact 
with the floor, especially daring the night, when 
the ground is cool. However much bedding is 
used, this objection cannot be overcome. A 
cement floor is desirable for cow stables provided 
it is covered with a removable wooden panel or 
false floor on which the cow stands or lies. The 
gutter, back of the platform on which the cow 
stands, should be constructed of concrete with a 
slope of about one inch in ten feet. Careful dairy 
farmers who recognize the value of the liquid 
manures for fertilizing purposes construct cement 
cisterns under the ends of the gutters to catch 
and hold this important by-product of the dairy 
herd. 



46 DAIRY FARMING 

Floor plans may be made so that the cows 
either face a center feeding alley or so that they 
face the walls and the space between them can be 
used for removing manure and carrying the milk 
away. Both types of construction have their ad- 
vantages and one must decide whether he prefers 
greater facilities for handling the feed or for 
handling the milk and removing the manure 
easily. The writer personally prefers the cows to 
face a center feeding alley, for in this way the 
animals are able to see each other and when con- 
fined in the barn for a considerable portion of the 
day, as during the winter months in northern 
latitudes, the animals are generally more con- 
tented. 

The Cow-Barn Ceiling 
The ceiling of the dairy barn should be at least 
nine feet above the floor level and should be dust- 
and chaff-proof. Gentlemen farmers prefer not 
to store hay, grain and other feeds above the 
stables. This necessitates bringing the feed from 
other buildings and obviously greatly increases 
the amount of work required for feeding the 
animals. TVhere the ceiling above the stable is 
tight and impervious to dust, there can be no 



DAIRY FARMING 



47 




48 DAIRY FARMING 

practical objection to storing feed over the stable. 
Hay can readily and with little labor be passed 
down into the stable through chutes and grain 
can be economically handled by means of grain 
boxes which connect bins above the stable with 
the lower floor. The ceiling should be kept well 
whitewashed in order that dust, cobwebs, and dirt 
of all kinds may be readily detected, also for the 
additional light afforded by reflection from the 
white surface. 



Sunlight as a Germicide 
Considering the sides of the stables, the matter 
of windows and doors is the most important. 
Doors should be at least three and one-half feet 
in width, opening outward, and should be of 
liberal height, at least six feet, three inches. 
Many a valuable cow has been injured by crowd- 
ing through a narrow door. There should be no 
step up or down for the cow to take when enter- 
ing the stable, since a slight slip may strain the 
delicate organs in which the milk is formed and 
secreted. The windows should aggregate at least 
ten per cent, of the floor space. Abundant light 
is not only nature's best germicide but makes the 



DAIRY FARMING 49 

long hours spent in the dairy barn more pleasant 
for both men and animals. The walls in front of 
the cows, in case they face toward the outside, 
should be painted or in some way colored a 
modest brown, drab, or other semi-dark hue. 
Experience has shown that nervousness or excita- 
bility in dairy animals is increased if they are 
obliged to face a bright-colored or a whitewashed 
wall. 

Ventilation 

Ventilation of the dairy barn by other means 
than through windows and doors is desirable. 
Ventilating shafts a foot or two from the floor 
and extending to the roof where they open into a 
cupola are the simplest ventilators. Another ex- 
cellent system is to have cold air inlets under the 
windows, with an exit for the heated and foul air 
near the ceiling. At least one square foot of 
ventilator space is necessary for every three 
animals kept, if reasonable purity of the air is ex- 
pected. 

Drinking water is sometimes provided in the 
stable, but in case a sheltered watering tank in 
the yard can be arranged, the latter method is 
preferable under average conditions. 



50 DAIRY FARMING 

Stalls and Stanchions 
Stanchions are undoubtedly the best means of 
fastening the cows while in the stable and while 
being milked. These may be made of wood (and 
come within the province of any carpenter famil- 
iar with farm work) or they may be of metal, a 
large variety of which are on the market and ad- 
vertised in prominent farm papers. A stanchion 
is superior to a rope and halter since the cow has 
a freer use of her head in a stanchion, is held 
more firmly should she prove fractious and there 
is no rope to interfere with her eating. 

The chief requisites of manufactured stanchions 
should be to allow the cows to lie down comfort- 
ably, to be easily opened and closed and quickly 
cleaned. In addition to the stanchions for the 
coavs in milk, there should be provided three or 
four comfortable box stalls for every twenty-five 
animals, in order that suitable quarters may at all 
times be furnished cows just before and during 
calving. The box stalls should be about eight 
feet square and should preferably be situated in 
the quietest place in the barn. 

Suitable quarters for young calves must also be 
considered in the planning of the stable in case 
there is to be only one barn for the cows. Where 



DAIRY FARMING 51 

several cow stables are to be built, a separate barn 
for the calves is desirable. A great deal of diffi- 
culty in managing calves at feeding time can be 
avoided by providing a row of stanchions for 
them. By so doing, the customary scuffle and the 
stealing of the smaller calves' feed by the larger 
ones will be avoided. 

The Bull-Pen 

As every dairyman with a herd of cows exceed- 
ing twenty should keep his own bull, a stout pen 
or box stall must be provided for " his majesty." 
The walls of the pen should be high enough so 
that the sire is not able to see the cows while 
they are in the barn. 

While the cow stable is the center of operations 
on the dairy farm, other buildings are necessary 
for the proper care of milk and its products. The 
number of other buildings depends, of course, on 
the disposition made of the milk. Certified milk 
production requires, perhaps, the greatest addi- 
tional outlay in the nature of buildings and 
equipments. 

Separate Buildings for Special 
Operations 

Where butter or cheese is made on the farm, 



52 DAIRY FARMING 

the number of buildings is somewhat less, and if 
the milk or cream is sold directly to creameries, 
cheese factories or city milk dealers, one building 
in which to care for milk and cream will suffice. 
The dairy laws of several of the most important 
states prohibit the keeping of a cream separator 
in the barn, unless the separator room is tightly 
boarded off from the stable. This precaution 
prevents the absorption of barn odors by the 
milk to a considerable degree. But every dairy- 
man who wishes to put out a first-class product 
must remove the milk from the barn very soon 
after it is drawn, and the other operations which 
follow should be conducted in an entirely separate 
building. 

Such a building or buildings should be at least 
seventy-five feet distant from the barn and should 
be connected with it by either cement, gravel or 
cinder walks. If the milkers carry mud and filth 
into the building where the milk is handled, the 
value of having the separate building is greatly 
reduced. A great many well-equipped dairy 
farms provide a trolley-carrier for removing the 
milk from the barn. Such a means of doing 
away with the necessity of the milkers or others 
who work in the dairy barn entering the building 



DAIRY FARMING 53 

is an important step toward safeguarding the 
flavor of the milk. The equipment of the build- 
ings for butter making, cheese making or for 
certified milk will be subsequently discussed 
under chapters dealing with these lines of dairy- 
ing. 

Silos and Silage 
An almost indispensable building on the dairy 
farm is the silo. A silo is nothing more than an 
immense tank for preserving the succulent forage 
crops, together with all their nutritious juices, for 
feed during the winter months. In the extreme 
south, where green fodder is obtainable all the 
year around, silos may be dispensed with, but they 
are nevertheless of great value in storing up, in 
all climates, surplus corn fodder, cow-peas, green 
alfalfa hay and other well-relished feeds from 
years of plenty to years of scarcity. In the north- 
ern climates, where green feed is unobtainable 
during the winter months, also in time of serious 
drought, the value of the silo is becoming appre- 
ciated more and more every year. Silos are made 
in various sizes, shapes and styles. They are 
made of masonry, concrete, tile, cement blocks, 
wooden staves, ordinary wood framework, in fact 



54 



DAIRY FARMING 




IX.— One Hundred Ton Concrete Silo erected at 
a cost of $293, of which $159 was paid for labor. 
The actual cost of the material, including $5 for 



,4. ~s „*. :. 



„ dM r*A 



DAIRY FARMING 55 

of every common building material. Of all shapes, 
the round silo is preferable, since the silage settles 
better and there is a greater capacity in proportion 
to the materials used in its construction than in 
any other shape. 

Dimensions and Capacities 

The dimensions of a silo depend chiefly on the 
rapidity with which silage will be fed. For a herd 
of twenty cows the silo should be twenty-four feet 
high and eighteen feet in diameter. Such a silo 
will hold slightly over one hundred tons of corn 
fodder. The silage is put into the silo in the fall 
by means of an ensilage cutter provided with a 
blower or other carrier to elevate the chopped 
green material to doors at the top of the silo 
from which it falls to the bottom. The silo should 
be filled in as short a time as possible in order 
that there may be no chance for decay or serious 
fermentation aside from the natural chemical 
changes which occur. The top three inches of the 
silage will always spoil unless fed immediately 
after the silo is filled, and feeding once begun 
must be continued to avoid loss by fermentation. 
In practice, the top is allowed to spoil, and when 
systematic feeding is begun it is discarded. Dur- 



56 DAIRY FARMING 

ing the cold months fermentation is very slight ; 
but in summer, silage must be fed rapidly and 
constantly in order to prevent its spoiling on 
top. 

Points in Silo Construction 

Concrete and masonry silos are the most expen- 
sive of all types. Their expense is partly com- 
pensated for, however, by the very slight losses 
due to fermentation and decay as compared with 
silos of wood construction. Regardless of the 
material of which the silo is made, the depth 
should be at least one-third more than the diam- 
eter in order that the silage may settle solidly and 
force out the air. The smallest size that a silo 
should be built is fifteen feet in diameter and 
twenty feet deep ; the largest size is about twenty- 
five feet in diameter and thirty-five feet deep. 
The latter size will hold approximately three 
hundred and fifty tons of silage. This amount 
will furnish silage for about ninety cows for eight 
months in the year. In case more than fifty cows 
are kept, two silos of medium size are preferable to 
one very large one. 

Wooden silos are made either by bending boards 
around a cylindrical form or of staves grooved on 



DAIRY FARMING 57 

the sides and fitted together like the staves of a 
barrel except that there is no bulge. The staves 
are held together by great iron bands placed on 
the outside and screwed up in order to make the 
walls of the silo practically air-tight. 

The Foundation 
A stone or cement foundation is desirable for 
all types and the bottom of the silo may extend 
from three to five feet underground in order to 
increase the depth of the silo without adding to its 
height above ground. The chief objection to 
having it extend too deep is the difficulty of get- 
ting the silage out when it is desired for feed. In 
ordinary practice the silo is built on the outside of 
one corner of the barn and a door opens from the 
silo into the feeding room of the barn or sometimes 
into the cow stable directly. Silos are also erected 
in the pastures in case silage is to be fed during 
the middle of the day or to beef cattle which are 
not brought into the barn for milking. 



CHAPTEK VI 
SOLVING THE HELP PROBLEM 

Though dairying is one of the most profitable 
lines of farming, one must not lose sight of the 
fact that it involves a great deal of hard and con- 
fining work which must be done by some one. In 
certain parts of Europe, women perform a great 
deal of work connected with the dairy, milking 
particularly. Their services are cheap and efficient ; 
in fact women are said to exert, through their 
personality, a beneficial effect on the milk-produc- 
ing capacities of cows, a quality which the sterner 
and rougher sex does not possess. 

In the United States, male help is used almost 
exclusively, and male help must be secured if a 
large-sized dairy is to be conducted. One man is 
able to care for from eight to ten cows, each giv- 
ing a liberal flow of milk. A good milker can in 
average practice milk about eight cows in an hour, 
the production of the cows averaging about twelve 
pounds at a milking. A dairy of from ten to 
twenty cows in milk requires the services of two 

58 



DAIRY FARMING 59 

men to do the work expeditiously and for every 
extra ten cows an additional man will be required. 
To be sure, some dairy farms are conducted with 
less help in proportion to the number of cows, but 
in any short-handed business enterprise the work 
is either poorly done or the relations between 
the employer and hired help are constantly 
strained, due to the necessity of overtime work to 
care for the numerous details which constantly 
present themselves. 

Make the Wage Scale Conform to the 
Work Scale 

The help problem on a dairy farm is a difficult 
one, but it can be solved in the same manner 
that it is solved in city manufacturing establish- 
ments, namely, by paying high enough wages to 
attract good men, and treating the men so well 
that they will stay. The writer has little pa- 
tience with those who deplore the scarcity of agri- 
cultural help and the absolute inability to secure 
competent help, while offering at the same time 
wages that are almost insulting. A decade ago 
it was possible to secure competent help for fifteen 
dollars a month in the South and about twenty 
dollars in the North. The prevailing wages now 



60 DAIRY FARMING 

are about double those figures, but modern dairy 
practices are also more exacting in the thorough- 
ness of the work. A competent herdsman or farm 
manager commands a salary of at least eighty 
dollars a month, and his board and room or house 
rent. Washing is not infrequently included when 
a large number of men are hired. 

Diversion foe the Hired Men 
The nature of the work demands, furthermore, 
a higher scale of wages than is paid ordinary farm 
help. The hours are considerably longer on a 
yearly average and to many men work on a dairy 
farm appears to be a monotonous repetition of the 
same tasks. From the standpoint of hired help, 
there is an element of truth in this view which 
cannot be overlooked with impunity. Some com- 
pensating factor in the form of diversion must be 
supplied. The most satisfactory of all is a con- 
siderable number of hours set aside on a certain 
day each week for the hired man to use as he sees 
fit. This method, when there are a considerable 
number of milkers, permits of each man missing 
a milking occasionally and spending a golden half 
day in town or in the pursuit of pleasure elsewhere. 
If for any reason the above plan is not feasible, a 



DAIRY FARMING 61 

long noon hour, from twelve to two o'clock, may 
operate to advantage, particularly if milking is 
begun early in the morning and is not over in the 
evening until a late hour. 

If the best returns possible are to be expected 
from the herd, the intervals between milkings must 
be of about equal length. The best hours to 
begin milking are five o'clock in the morning and 
five o'clock in the afternoon ; but this schedule 
cannot always be complied with. In the produc- 
tion of milk for the city trade, a certain train 
must usually be met, which necessitates early 
milking ; but whatever the necessary hours are, 
they should be rigidly adhered to. Uniformity 
in the hours of milking must be impressed upon 
the men. 

Another matter which hired men frequently 
dislike is miscellaneous work which was not men- 
tioned at the time they were hired. There should 
always be a definite understanding as to the duties 
to be performed when the help is engaged. A 
man who engages himself as a milker or a feeder 
naturally dislikes to haul manure or peddle milk 
in town. These are merely typical instances in- 
dicative of points on which employer and em- 
ployee may disagree where the duties expected of 



62 DAIRY FARMING 

the hired man were not previously determined 
by the one and accepted by the other. 

Both the hired man and the employer have 
rights, and the rights of each must be considered 
if the hired help problem is to be satisfactorily 
solved. The obligations on each side are about as 
follows : 



Employer's Obligations 

To state definitely the nature of the work ex- 
pected, length of hours and wages to be paid. 

To specify a definite person or " boss " from 
whom directions are to be received. 

To pay wages promptly and in full according to 
prearranged agreement. 

To allow his help a reasonable amount of time 
for recreation and for attending to his individual 
interests. 

To recognize efficient service by an occasional 
increase of wages. 

To provide for clean and comfortable sleeping 
quarters and good meals. 

To treat his men with consideration at all times 
and when overtime work is necessary to pay extra 
wages for it. 



DAIRY FARMING 63 

Employee's Obligations 

To furnish satisfactory references as to charac- 
ter, competence and industry and in no case to 
overstate his qualifications for the position he seeks. 

To render conscientious services and work for 
the interests of his employer. 

To act at all times the same as when the em- 
ployer is at hand, particularly in the dairy barn 
and in handling the cows. 

To recognize that, during the time specified, his 
time belongs to his employer and that the abuse 
of this time is equivalent to financially defrauding 
the employer. 

To discuss directly with the employer and not 
with other hired help all sources or reasons for 
dissatisfaction or complaints. 

To treat his employer with respect at all times 
and to do, when the occasion arises, any extra 
work which is obviously necessary, without being 
told. 

To give reasonable notice of intention to leave 
or inability to be at hand at any time to assume his 
usual work or responsibilities. 

The best manner of securing hired help varies 
with local conditions and with individual cases. 



64 DAIRY FARMING 

The most satisfactory results are generally ob- 
tained through personal solicitations among ac- 
quaintances in the dairy business. Another 
method is by corresponding with those in charge 
of agricultural schools or colleges where a large 
number of men fit themselves for dairy work. 
Still another means is by advertising in local news- 
papers or publications having a circulation in rural 
communities, such as dairy and general farm 
papers. Those who have been in the dairy busi- 
ness for a long time find it easier and more satis- 
factory to induce their men to stay by treating 
and paying them well, than to be breaking in new 
men constantly and having them leave through 
dissatisfaction shortly after they have become 
thoroughly familiar with the work and are just 
beginning to render efficient services. 



CHAPTER VII 
POINTS ON MILKING 

The relatively simple operation of milking is ac- 
companied by such important secondary operations 
that a general consideration of the science of milk- 
ing will greatly aid in securing the largest possible 
milk flow. The udder of a cow is spongy in 
structure and even just before milking contains a 
very small amount of milk ; not more than a pint 
and a half. 

During the operation of milking, the milk which 
partly fills the sponge-like recesses of the udder is 
drawn off through the teats and the milk-secreting 
glands immediately yield enough more milk to re- 
place that withdrawn. As milking proceeds this 
process is rapidly repeated until all of the milk fluid 
tributary to the glands is exhausted. Milking is 
therefore an internal as well as an external process. 

To properly perform it, place a low stool at the 
right hand side of the cow just in front of the ud- 
der. Grasp alternate teats firmly and draw the 
forefinger of each hand tightly around the teat just 

65 



66 DAIRY FARMING 

where it is joined to the udder. Then draw up the 
second finger, then the third and finally the little 
finger. This manner of applying pressure will 
force the milk in the teats out into the pail which 
is held between the knees. Always milk from the 
upper part of the teat down ; never merely squeeze 
the teat. An " easy milker " is the term applied 
to a cow which will give down her milk freely and 
very little difficulty is experienced in milking such 
a cow. But when the milk fails to come after the 
teats have been squeezed several times or comes 
very slowly, the udder will require manipulation. 
This consists in kneading the udder by massaging 
it with the hands or, as more commonly practiced, 
by pulling down on the teats while the latter are 
being squeezed. 

Importance of Rapid Milking 

The mild stimulus thus given to the milk-secret- 
ing glands will start the flow and milking should 
be continued vigorously and rapidly until all of 
the milk is drawn. Rapid milking results in a 
more vigorous stimulation of the udder, its nerves 
and glands with the consequent large flow of milk. 
When the operation of milking is carried on slowly 
and listlessly, the amount of milk is quickly re- 



DAIRY FARMING 67 

duced and the profits of the dairy thereby lessened. 
To leave a cow partly milked to attend to some other 
duty, even for a minute, is a practice to be avoided. 

" Stripping " is the term applied to the last part 
of the milking operation. After two teats have 
been thoroughly milked, the other alternate teats 
should be manipulated as described until all of the 
milk is apparently drawn. Then return to the first 
two teats and by drawing the forefinger and thumb 
of each hand down the entire length of the teats, a 
considerable amount of milk will be obtained. 
Repeat until all of this so-called " stripping milk " 
is drawn and then return to the second pair of teats, 
which are stripped in like manner. The stripping 
milk is very much richer than the first milk and all 
of it should be drawn. To neglect to strip a cow 
or to milk her only partially tends to dry her off, 
as is done a few weeks before calving. 

In order to make milking a pleasure rather than 
a task, the dairyman needs but to take precautions 
to exclude flies from the stable, to see that the cows 
are comfortable and in harmony with their sur- 
roundings. A stranger in the barn, a recently 
whitewashed wall or a barking dog in the barn- 
yard will in many cases make the cows nervous 
and irritable and difficult to milk. 



CHAPTEK VIII 

PRACTICABILITY OF MILKING MACHINES 

Foe over a century, inventors throughout the 
world have been endeavoring to make a machine 
which will successfully milk cows. Up to the 
present time the hundreds of patented inventions 
have given only partial satisfaction. The universal 
adoption of a milking machine will quickly follow 
the invention of one approaching perfection but, in 
order to reach perfection, the machine must milk 
more quickly and more cheaply and do the work 
fully as well as hand milking. The evolution of 
the milking machine will doubtless be similar to 
that of the cream separator. The first separators 
were large and bulky machines which required an 
engine to operate them. The modern farm separa- 
tor is readily turned by hand and yields more 
cream with less power than did the earlier makes. 

The " Sticking Point " in Machine Milking 

The milking machines now in most general use 

68 



DAIRY FARMING 69 

are those which require a considerable amount of 
machinery, piping and elaborate equipment in the 
way of tubes and specially made pails. Even 
these machines, with all their accessories and 



X. — Milking Machine Pail with one set of teat cups in 
operation. The pail is divided by a partition which 
keeps the milk of two cows separately. 



70 DAIRY FARMING 

under skilful management, have not given com- 
plete satisfaction, although they have found favor 
in the eyes of some. Machines have been made 
to do seemingly more complex work than milking 
a cow, but such factors as the individual tempera- 
ment and the physical structure of a cow are still 
baffling the inventors. These factors, together 
with the demand for machines which can be easily 
cleaned, makes the problem unique and therein 
lies the difficulty of making a perfectly satisfac- 
tory milking machine which can be used for all 
cows and managed by the average hired help. 

Experience has shown that, in order to secure 
the best results with the machines now on the 
market, practically a new type of cow and an 
absolutely uniform type of udder and teats must 
be developed by breeding animals which have 
shown themselves to be adapted to mechanical or 
machine milking. 

Proper Management Essential in All 

Cases 

In addition to the power machines, there are a 
number of semi-successful hand and foot machines 
which can be placed between two cows and, by 
being operated with levers or cranks, will by sue- 



DAIRY FARMING 11 

tion, compression, or both, extract most of the 
milk from both cows. The work of these ma- 
chines must generally be supplemented by hand 
milking in order to get all of the milk out of the 
udders. The experiences of those who have in- 
stalled milking machines of various types vary 
so greatly that we are forced to the conclusion 
that the success of any milking machine depends 
ultimately on its proper management. 

However perfect may be any milking device 
that can be invented, it will never be successful 
in the hands of the careless dairyman. Limiting 
ourselves to the power machines, which have been 
the most successful, we find that they consist of 
first, an engine of two horse-power or upward, a 
steel vacuum tank from which air is exhausted by 
suction pumps, air-tight piping which connects 
the vacuum tank with stanchion cocks near 
each animal, special pails to receive the milk and 
teat cups and tubes which connect the cows' 
udders with the vacuum pails. 

The Mechanism of a Power Milking 
Machine 

The operation of the milking machines is rela- 
tively simple. The accompanying diagram indi- 



72 



DAIRY FARMING 




DAIRY FARMING 73 

cates the arrangement of the machinery. The 
engine operates the vacuum pump at A, which 
gradually exhausts the air in the tank B. The 
vacuum reached and maintained is about fifteen 
inches, as indicated by gauges along the pipes and 
within sight of the milking machine operators. 
The vacuum pails are placed between the cows 
and the teat cups attached to the udders by simply 
placing them over the teats. They are held in 
place partly by the elasticity of the rubber lining 
and partly through suction. Modern machines 
have a pulsating device on the pail which creates 
an intermittent suction similar to the natural ac- 
tion of the calf in sucking milk from its mother. 
When all of the milk has been drawn from the cow, 
the operator notices, through a glass-covered open- 
ing in the pail, that no more milk is entering. 
The teat cups are then removed. During the 
process of milking, rubbing or kneading the udder 
will often stimulate a large milk flow. 

Yery few cows seem to object to being milked 
by machine, in fact some are more quiet when 
machine-milked than when milked by hand, due 
undoubtedly to the more uniform rhythm and 
gentler action of the machine than of the milker's 
hand. The greatest difficulty experienced and 



74 DAIRY FARMING 

reported by dairymen has been the holding up of 
milk by certain cows. In milking a cow by hand, 
the milker is familiar with the temperament of 
the animal ; he knows whether the cow is giving 
down her milk freely, and in case she does not, he 
supplies more power or milks more vigorously. 
Some teats are also more difficult to draw milk 
from than others and the hand milker can adapt 
his manner of milking to obtain the most satis- 
factory results from all quarters of the udder. 
The milking machine, on the other hand, is unable 
to cope with such a situation, owing to the in- 
ability of a machine to adapt itself to conditions 
it is unable to detect. 

Difficulty of Cleaning 

Great as are the above-mentioned problems, 
perhaps the most serious of all objections to the 
milking machine lies in the rubber tubes through 
which the milk must pass. Rubber cannot be 
sterilized by steam or high degrees of heat with- 
out resulting in rapid deterioration, which would 
in turn involve great expense if the rubber tubes 
had to be replaced frequently. Therefore, the 
cleaning of the tubes must be accomplished by 
careful washing. With such a perishable product 



DAIRY FARMING 



75 




XII.— Cleaning Milking Machine Connections. 



76 DAIRY FARMING 

as milk, washing can never be too thorough, and 
to remove all of the milk in the tubes to prevent 
contamination of the next milking is a difficult 
task. Disinfectants or any of the ordinary chem- 
ical poisons which would sterilize the interior walls 
of the tubes cannot be used, owing to the serious 
danger of their affecting the purity of the milk 
later to be drawn through the tubes. 

The only cleansing material which can be safely 
used is hot water, which certainly cannot be relied 
upon to remove all of the milk. Since the milky 
residue which is bound to accumulate in time on 
the inside of the rubber tubes cannot be seen, it is 
very likely to be overlooked and its presence 
neglected. This is the master objection to the 
present milking machines. 

Saving of Labor is Problematical 
The saving of help is a question which can be 
answered in neither the negative nor the affirma- 
tive. True, one man can attend to several ma- 
chines and at certain times can be milking as 
many as twelve cows simultaneously, but at other 
times, when he is getting the machines ready, he 
is not milking any cows. On large dairy farms, 
where fifty or more cows are milked regularly 



DAIRY FARMING 77 

and where there are several milkers, the installa- 
tion of a power milking machine system might 
result in the saving of the wages of a man or 
two. In such a case we can say that the milking 
machine is a labor saver. But on a small dairy 
farm, where less than fifty cows are kept, the ad- 
vantages of a milking machine, as a labor saver, 
are problematical. Certainly, where efficient help 
can be secured at a reasonable scale of wages, the 
milking machine is not advisable. When help 
cannot be secured readily, the machine may per- 
haps solve that problem. 

The initial cost of a power milking machine 
system for a herd of forty cows is in the neighbor- 
hood of five hundred dollars with an additional 
twenty-five dollars a year for upkeep. This does 
not include the cost of the power required to 
operate the pumps. The effect of milking ma- 
chines on the health of the herd is beneficial 
rather than detrimental, owing to the somewhat 
better care which is taken of the cows* udders 
where machines are used. 



CHAPTEK IX 
FEEDING AND MANAGING THE HERD 

The feeding of dairy cows differs from the 
feeding of horses, dogs and the various domestic 
animals only in the respect that the cow responds 
more quickly to changes of feed than any other 
animal. This response is particularly noticeable 
at the pail and by watching carefully the amount 
of milk produced each day, the skilful herdsman 
is able to vary the ration so that each animal will 
produce her milk most liberally and economically. 
The composition of the animal body is very 
similar to that of the human body, and such 
foods as fats, proteids and those rich in starch are 
as necessary for the dairy cow as for the human 
system. 

The chief difference between the feed which a 
cow can consume and assimilate and that which 
a human being eats, is that the cow's food may be 
much coarser. The cow can convert crude fats 
and oils, such as are found in cottonseed meal, 

78 



DAIRY FARMING 79 

flax and to some extent in all grains, into the 
very valuable product known as milkfat or butter- 
fat. She can convert the proteids of hay, grass, 
and corn silage into the delicate albumen found 
in milk. The value of a dairy cow depends on 
the readiness with which these changes take place 
in her body and also to the ratio between the 
amount of food consumed and the amount of milk 
produced. 

Succulent Feeds and Puee Water 
As previously stated, in the discussion of breeds, 
the difference between a dairy cow and a beef or 
dual-purpose animal is that, in the former case, 
the feed is converted almost entirely into milk 
and very little is taken out by the cow to be 
stored up as fat and tissue. In the latter cases, 
where the feed is converted into flesh, which 
deteriorates in market value as the animal be- 
comes older and yields no profit at all until the 
animal is killed, the cost of the feed is so great in 
proportion to the amount of milk produced, that 
the animals cannot be kept at a profit except 
where there is extensive pasturage or where the 
feed is very cheaply obtained. As water con- 
stitutes about eighty-seven per cent, of normal 



80 DAIRY FARMING 

milk, the importance of succulent feeds and of 
a liberal supply of pure water cannot be over- 
looked. 

The Balanced Ration 
One is not very long in the business of feed- 
ing farm animals, particularly dairy cows, before 
he hears of the balanced ration. By a balanced 
ration is meant a plan of feeding, so that the 
percentage of digestible matter in all of the foods 
totals the body requirement of the cow. Just as 
meat, potatoes, bread, butter and pudding are said 
to make a well-balanced meal for the human 
family, so a definite ratio of roughage, concen- 
trates and occasional condiments make a balanced 
ration for the dairy cow. 

No single standard of feeding can be laid down 
for dairymen, since the standard constantly changes 
with the climate, temperature and the condition 
of the animals at different times of their milk 
flow. As a tentative guide, the following figures 
represent the ration of a cow weighing about one 
thousand pounds and giving about ten pounds of 
milk twice a day: two pounds of proteid food, 
twelve pounds of carbohydrates and one-half a 
pound of fat. 



DAIRY FARMING 81 

Variety of Seasonal Rations 
Of course a very large variety of foods can be 
drawn upon in making the necessary selection at 
any time of the year. In the spring months the 
common roughage feeds are as follows : timothy 
hay, red clover hay, alfalfa hay, wheat straw, corn 
silage and sometimes dried corn stalks. The con- 
centrates for the spring months are generally 
soy beans, cow-peas, oats, cottonseed, and barley 
meal. 

For summer feeding the roughage is generally 
pasture grass and clovers, hay and some silage, 
depending whether or not the latter is at hand. 
Concentrates for the summer months are fed spar- 
ingly and should contain a rather small per- 
centage of fats and oils. Such mill products as 
rye flour, ground corn and oats, and corn-cob 
meal are typical of the kinds of feed which 
may be fed. Waste products or by-products of 
other industries such as brewer's grains, barley 
screenings, and cottonseed hulls may also be 
fed. 

In the fall months the roughage may be fall 
pasture, sheaf oats, fresh corn and the season's 
hay. The concentrates should be about the same 
as those fed during the summer. 



82 DAIRY FARMING 

Palatable Winter Feeds 
The winter months are those which tax the 
skill of the feeder to the utmost in securing a 
large flow of milk. Milk and cream prices are 
highest during the cold weather, and to produce 
milk cheaply for a high-priced market is naturally 
the end sought. Dairymen all over the country 
are recognizing the importance of laying by a 
great variety of palatable feeds for winter use. 
Among the roughage feeds are corn silage, alfalfa 
hay cured in the cock, cow-pea vine silage, kafir 
corn stover, 1 and red clover silage. 

Among the concentrated foods for winter feed- 
ing may be mentioned oil cake, cottonseed meal, 
flax, gluten meal and all of the grains. Espe- 
cially important in the winter are roots and 
tubers. The English and Danes feed more root 
crops, as they are called, than the Americans. 
The great advantage of root crops are that they 
are in a way condimental and are instrumental in 
keeping the system in good order. Among those 
which may be laid by to advantage for winter use 
are potatoes, both Irish and sweet, sugar beets, 
turnips, rutabagas and carrots. 

1 Kafir corn fed in its natural state, with the heads left on. 
"Stover" means "fed whole." 



DAIRY FARMING 83 

Natural Feeds Safer than Proprietary 
Preparations 

The above-mentioned rations are suitable for 
milch cows. Growing calves require less rough- 
age and more concentrated food. Calves thrive 
especially well on skim-milk in which there is 
ground flaxseed, and various meals derived by 
crushing grains. There is on the market each 
year an increasing number of prepared foods of 
concentrated nature for dairy animals. So great 
and so unfounded have been the claims of certain 
manufacturers of ' these preparations that many 
states have inaugurated an inspection of feeding 
stuffs in order to prevent worthless food from 
being sold at exorbitant prices. 

Obviously a few tablespoonfuls of a preparation 
cannot result in a rapid gain in weight by the 
animal, neither can it increase the milk flow per- 
manently. A great many of the preparations 
are little more than stimulants and frequently 
injure the cow's delicate digestive and milk- 
producing mechanism. One is always follow- 
ing the safest line of feeding when he limits 
his rations to natural feed. To be sure, there 
is an attractive mystery connected with feeds 
brought in at great expense, particularly when 



84 DAIRY FARMING 

the feed is accompanied by strong claims for its 
merits. 

The cheapest and the best foods, however, are 
usually those produced near by and, in case one 
desires to feed manufactured preparations, he 
should write to his state experiment station for 
information as to the real merits and feeding 
value of the feed he proposes to use. 

Cattle Feed is Expensive Fuel 
A very important consideration in winter feed- 
ing is the warmth of the stables. A dairy cow, 
producing a large flow of milk, is a sensitive 
creature and should be adequately sheltered both 
in the barn-yard and in the stable. A stable, free 
from draughts and a barn-yard protected on one 
side at least from bleak winds, will more than 
pay for themselves in the course of time by the 
increased amount of milk produced by the herd. 
In very cold weather the drinking water should 
be warmed slightly in order that a large amount 
of feed will not be consumed for raising the 
temperature to that of the cow's body. The 
reader can see the economy of using fuel as the 
source of heat for warming the water rather than 
drawing upon the vitality of the cow. 



DAIRY FARMING 85 

During the winter months, feed rich in fat and 
protein should be used more freely than during 
the summer months in order to make the cows 
more resistant to cold. The general rule for 
feeding a dairy cow grain (which is relatively 
rich in fat and protein) is to feed her as many 
pounds of grain a day as she produces pounds of 
butterfat in a week. Stated another way, she 
may be fed about one-fourth as much grain per 
day as she produces pounds of milk. During the 
months of cold weather, the careful herd manager 
will give the cows, which are producing large 
amounts of milk and butterfat, a larger ration of 
grain than those producing smaller amounts. 

The Nutritive Ratio 
The nutritive ratio of feeds is the ratio between 
the amount of digestible protein in the feed and 
the combined amount of digestible carbohydrates 
and fats. For example, the nutritive ratio of such 
a product as wheat bran which contains about 
four parts of digestible carbohydrates and fat to 
one part digestible protein is 1 : 4. A ratio in 
which the last number is not more than four 
times that of the first is a " narrow " ratio, while 
a ratio in which the last number is more than six 



86 DAIRY FARMING 

times that of the first is known as a " wide " 
ratio. 

The nutritive ratios of a few of the most 
common concentrated feeding stuffs are as 
follows : 

Cottonseed meal, 1 : 1.2 Middlings, 1 : 4.2 

Oil meal, 1 : 1.7 Ground corn and oats, 1 : 9.0 

Wheat bran, 1:4.1 Hominy, 1:11.4 

Fat Content of Milk not Affected by 

Feed 
As a rule the feeds rich in protein are slightly 
greater in cost than those with a wider nutritive 
ratio. From the large number of feeds with dif- 
ferent analyses and widely varying percentages of 
fat, one might think it a simple matter to select 
feeds that would make the milk very rich in but- 
terfat. Scientists have worked for years on this 
problem, but without practical success. There is 
no selection of feed which will cause the, percent- 
age of butt erf at in the milk to increase. The 
only means of artificially affecting the fat content 
of milk is to almost starve the animal. In this 
way the amount of milk is very much reduced, 
and as the cow draws on the fats stored up in her 
body for the fatty material in her milk, a slight 



DAIRY FARMING 87 

advance in butterfat over the normal content may 
be noted. Such a gain is entirely offset, how- 
ever, by the corresponding loss when the animal 
is again fed a full ration. Obviously the method 
above mentioned has no commercial value. 

The management of the dairy herd simply de- 
mands good business methods, and careful watch- 
ing of the disposition and performances of each 
animal is practically all that is necessary as a 
guide to proper care. Dairy cows will, of course, 
do best when they are kindly handled and milked. 
An animal which has been forced into her place 
by the use of a pitchfork and curried down with 
the leg of a milking stool, is not ready to do jus- 
tice to her normal ability to produce milk. The 
cows should be treated like ladies, and when there 
is a possibility that an animal does not understand 
what is expected of her, she should always be 
given the benefit of the doubt. 

Management of Bulls 
An unruly or a fractious cow should, of course, 
be treated firmly but not roughly. The same rule 
applies in the case of bulls. Males of all of the dairy 
breeds should be handled as though they were dan- 
gerous, however gentle they may at times appear. 



88 DAIRY FARMING 

Owing to the great strength of a bull, a jockey 
stick snapped to a copper ring in the nose is the 
safest way to handle him. If always kept com- 
pletely under control, he will not become aware of 
his strength, whereas should he be tied or led 




XIII.— Guernsey Bull Being Handled With Jockey 
Stick. The snap at the end of the stick catches into 
the copper ring in the bull's nose and he can neither 
. run toward nor away from the person handling him. 

about with merely a rope and halter and should 
succeed in breaking it once, the wisdom he thus 
gains may be put to wicked use when he is least 
suspected. 



CHAPTER X 

TESTING MILK FOR RICHNESS AND 
PURITY 

The considerable number of municipal, state 
and federal standards which dairymen must comply 
with in order to put out legal dairy products, 
necessitates a thorough understanding of the prin- 
cipal tests applied to dairy products. Among 
the requirements which are most prominent in 
specifying the purity of milk are those which de- 
tine the lowest percentage of butterfat in the 
milk, the lowest percentage of total solids in the 
milk and those which further specify that nothing 
can be added to or subtracted from milk to be sold 
as whole milk. The term whole milk means milk 
as it is drawn from the cow with no cream added 
or removed. 

If one is putting out certified milk, the matter 
of the bacterial count is of importance. The prin- 
cipal standards for cream are purity and richness. 
Most of the standards for butter specify that it 
must contain a minimum fat content of eighty 

89 



90 DAIRY FARMING 

per cent., although a few states still adhere to an 
unreasonable standard of eighty-two and one-half 
per cent. Ice-cream standards specify particularly 
the lowest permissible amount of butterfat. 

The chief federal standard, which is very 
strictly enforced, is that which deals with the 
percentage of moisture in butter. A ruling of the 
Bureau of Internal Revenue specifies that butter 
containing sixteen or more per cent, of water is 
adulterated, and that the manufacturer of such 
butter must pay a tax of ten cents per pound and, 
in addition, take out a license for manufacturing 
adulterated butter. 

The Fraud of One-Minute Churns 

This ruling bears especially on the products of 
the so-called one-minute churns, recently placed 
on sale, and advertised widely among dairymen. 
The manufacturers and agents of these churns 
claim that a pound or a pint of milk, mixed with 
a pound of butter, will produce two pounds. The 
inference is that the product is butter, but in re- 
ality it is always adulterated butter. The stand- 
ards of purity for milk products, as determined by 
the Secretary of Agriculture, are not strictly en- 
forced, but have served as valuable guides for the 



DAIRY FARMING 91 

enactment of stringent state and municipal laws. 
As these laws are constantly changing and vary 
in different localities, every dairyman should se- 
cure a copy of them from his state dairy commis- 
sioner. 

Operation of the Babcock Test 

The test most widely used among dairymen is 
the Babcock test, named after Dr. Babcock of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station. This test enables 
one to very quickly, accurately and cheaply de- 
termine the percentage of butterfat in milk, cream, 
ice-cream and cheese. It consists of measuring, in 
the case of milk, and weighing in the case of the 
other products a definite sample which is placed 
in a graduated test bottle. About an equal 
amount of sulphuric acid is then added and the 
mixture is whirled for a few minutes in a centri- 
fuge. Enough water is then added to bring the 
fat, which has been separated from the rest of the 
mixture, into the neck of the bottle and the rich- 
ness of the milk or other product is read directly 
by means of the graduations of the neck of the 
bottle. A separate bottle is required for each 
class of products. 

These testing outfits may be purchased for as 



92 DAIRY FARMING 

little as four dollars, and every dairyman should, 
by all means, own and use a Babcock test for 
milk at least. A test can be made for about one 
cent and the time required is not more than ten 
minutes. The directions which accompany differ- 
ent makes of the testing outfits are always clear 
and easily followed. In view of the wide differ- 
ence of makes of testing bottles and slight differ- 
ences in the methods of handling the various 
makes of tests, no general directions can here be 
given. 

The Test for Solids in Milk 
The tests for the total solids in milk are seldom 
made by dairymen who are putting out a high 
grade of milk. The standards are sufficiently 
reasonable to permit the average milk of any herd 
to pass inspection, but in case watering is resorted 
to (always in violation of the law) the offender is 
usually caught and forced to pay the penalty in 
addition to receiving undesirable publicity. 

The common test for the total solids in the 
milk has for its basis the use of a lactometer, an 
instrument which floats in the milk. It has a 
graduated neck and the denser the milk the higher 
the lactometer will float. 



DAIRY FARMING 93 

Test for Moisture in Butter 
The moisture content of butter is determined 
by first weighing a definite amount of the butter 
and then heating it sufficiently to drive off the 
moisture. When the moisture has been entirely 
expelled, the sample is again weighed and from 
the loss in weight the percentage of water is 
calculated. While this test is used chiefly in 
creameries, a dairy farmer, putting a large amount 
of butter on the market, can use one of the many 
makes of moisture tests to great advantage. 
Batter will very seldom contain more than sixteen 
per cent, of moisture unless special means and 
methods have been followed to incorporate a large 
amount of moisture in the butter. On the other 
hand, a great deal of dairy butter contains an un- 
usually small amount of moisture. A few per 
cent, more would not only increase the profits of 
the dairyman, but would, in many cases, improve 
the quality of the butter. It is obvious that the 
use of a moisture test will quickly pay for it if the 
conditions just mentioned prevail. 

The Hart Casein Test 
Another test, invented by Dr. E. B. Hart of the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station, is one for quickly 



94 DAIRY FARMING 

and accurately determining the percentage of 
casein in milk. This test is now on the market 
and is being used by many cheese factories as the 
basis or at least a guide for paying farmers for 
milk delivered to cheese factories. Its operation 
is somewhat similar to that of the Babcock test 
and each of these casein tests sold is accompanied 
by full directions. 

The Milk Sediment Test 
One of the most striking tests used in the dairy 
is the milk sediment test. The tester consists of 
a cylinder surrounded by a hot- water jacket and 
provided at its lower tapering end with a cap 
containing a circle of wire gauze. A bit of 
absorbent cotton is placed over the gauze and 
milk is poured into the cylinder. After the milk 
has run through the cotton and the wire gauze, 
the clamp which holds them in place is removed 
and the cotton disc is examined for sediment. If 
the milk is clean, the cotton disc will be perfectly 
free from a dark coloration ; but if dirty milk is 
put through the tester, a black circle will be left 
on the cotton. Varying shades of gray on the 
cotton indicate the relative purity of the milk 
from the standpoint of dirt. 



DAIRY FARMING 



95 




XIV.— Milk Sediment Tester. A is the central 
cylinder holding about a pint. B is a hot water 
jacket with receiving and overflow apertures. 
C is a brass cap containing a circle of wire gauze 
E, over which is placed a disc of absorbent cotton. 
D is a clamp rod for holding the cap and cotton in 
place. 



90 



DAIRY FARMING 




XV.— Sediment Tests from four grades of milk. The 
cotton disc, which is almost white, indicates perfectly 
clean milk. The disc in the lower right hand corner 
shows the sediment from dirty milk. The other tests 
show intermediate grades of milk. 



Tests foe Bacteeia 
Tests for the number of bacteria in milk must 
be conducted by a skilful bacteriologist if ac- 



DAIKY FARMING 97 

curate results are expected. The number of 
bacteria found in a unit amount of milk, generally 
a cubic centimeter, is influenced by the following 
factors in the history of the milk since it was 
drawn : cleanliness of milking, temperature at 
which milk has been held, cleanliness of bottles or 
other containers and the age of the milk. 

Other tests which are commonly applied to 
milk, cream and butter are those relating to the 
acidity, or relative sweetness, and in the case of 
butter the test for salt. These tests are not com- 
monly applied in the dairy but their existence is 
mentioned so that they may be obtained, if desired, 
from any manufacturer of dairy apparatus. 



CHAPTER XI 
SANITATION AND CARE OF MILK 

The same factors which make milk valuable as 
a food also make it one of the most perishable of 
all foods. These factors are : its delicate chemical 
nature, its liquid form and its liberal percentage 
of animal fat. Its delicate chemical nature makes 
it a favorite food medium for many kinds of 
bacteria, its liquid form causes any contamination 
to spread rapidly through the entire amount and 
its fat content renders it susceptible to taint from 
various undesirable farm and kitchen odors. The 
reader will remember that fatty substances are 
used in the extraction of perfumes from flowers, 
and this same principle applies in the opposite 
extreme to the contamination of milk and cream 
by objectionable odors. 

Normal pure milk contains about 87 per cent, of 
water, 3.7 per cent, of fat, 4.8 per cent, milk 
sugar, 3.8 per cent, casein and the remaining .7 
per cent, mineral matter. When milk leaves the 

98 



DAIRY FARMING 99 

cow's body it is practically sterile and free from 
taint. The care that is taken of the milk from 
that time until it is delivered to the consumer 
determines its value, its quality and its price. 

Bacteeia in Milk 
Throughout the air, water and land of the earth 
are microscopic plants (not animals), invisible to the 
naked eye, but which rapidly multiply to produce 
visible results. About ninety-nine per cent, of 
these bacteria are beneficial so far as they destroy 
decaying organic matter, help the farmer to main- 
tain the fertility of his fields and warn the public 
of dangerous foods, dwelling places and other 
menaces by the objectionable nature of the gases 
and odors they produce. The most common germ 
found in milk is the lactic acid bacillus or bacterium 
(plural, bacteria) which, if allowed to develop un- 
checked, causes the souring of milk. The souring 
process is merely the development of so much acid 
that the taste is unpleasant to the human palate. 
Throughout all lines of the dairy industry, one is 
constantly working with or against bacteria, 
chiefly the lactic acid bacteria. In butter and 
cheese making, the growth of bacteria is en- 
couraged to a considerable degree in order to 



100 DAIHY FARMING 

secure the desired bacterial flavors. In milk and 
cream, on the other hand, the dairyman must wage 
a constant fight against bacterial development in 
order that the milk and cream may stay sweet for 
a sufficiently long time to convince the consumer 
that the milk was pure. 

Value of Heat and Cold as Dairy Agents 
The best known means at the present time for 
controlling bacterial development are cold, heat 
and preservatives. The lactic acid bacteria make 
their best growth at a temperature between eighty 
and one hundred and twenty degrees. Above and 
below those limits the rapidity of growth becomes 
less as the temperature increases toward the boil- 
ing point and decreases toward the freezing point. 
The producer of milk relies, for the most part, on 
cold temperatures in order to retard the develop- 
ment of bacteria, and to keep the milk in a sweet 
condition as long as it is in his hands. With a 
cold temperature there must also be the exclusion 
of air, dusty air particularly. If dust is allowed 
to gain access to the milk, even though the latter 
is kept cold, no serious results will be visible for 
some time but, as soon as the milk approaches 
seventy degrees or above in temperature, a tre- 



DAIRY FARMING 101 

mendous growth begins and the souring is com- 
pleted in a short time. 

Solving the Dust Problem 
The simplest ways of guarding against dust are, 
first, to avoid feeding such dusty rations as hay or 
dry meal just before milking ; second, to wipe the 
udders and teats of the cow with a damp cloth 
just previous to milking ; third, to avoid wearing 
clothes which have been worn in the field or other- 
wise exposed to dirt; fourth, to use carefully 
cleaned and sanitary milking pails and cans. The 
most suitable pails for milking are those which are 
partly covered on the top yet allow sufficient 
space for the streams of milk from the teats to be 
directed into the pail without loss. The use of 
strainers in the dairy is a matter which is not well 
understood. Straining milk removes visible straw, 
manure and filth which find access to the milk 
even when the milking is apparently carefully 
done. The strainer, however, does not remove the 
millions of bacteria which were formerly lodged on 
this foreign matter, and they are always washed 
through the sieve of the strainer into the milk. 
Straining the milk obviously does not serve to 
purify it in any manner except to remove the visi- 



102 DAIRY FARMING 

ible means of the contamination. In a well-reg- 
ulated dairy, straining the milk is done only to 
remove the foam which is merely a small amount 
of milk blown up by air bubbles. A liberal amount 
of foam is always produced by rapid milking. 

Where a strainer is used, it should be of the 
nature of a very fine wire screen and not cloth or 
material which cannot be thoroughly cleansed. 
This rule does not apply to the very excellent milk 
pails over the top of which is a layer of absorbent 
cotton used only once. The latter system for 
keeping foreign matter out of the milk is used 
chiefly in producing a very high class of certified 
milk, and is rather too expensive for adoption by 
dairymen in general. 

Pasteurization and Sterilization 
Having kept the milk cold, generally by placing 
it in well-covered cans which in turn are almost 
submerged in cold water, the dairyman producing 
milk for the market trade is able to supply the city 
dealer with a very creditable product. Heating, 
as a means for keeping the number of bacteria in 
the milk low, is commonly employed in two opera- 
tions, pasteurization and sterilization. Pasteuriza- 
tion derives its name from the famous French 



DAIRY FARMING 103 

bacteriologist, Louis Pasteur, who discovered the 
process. The name should not be confused with 
the English word "pasture." 

Pasteurization merely consists of heating milk 
to temperatures ranging from 140 degrees Fahren- 
heit to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. This range of 
temperatures varies according to the length of time 
the milk is to be kept or pasteurized at any partic- 
ular degree of heat. When a temperature of 180 
degrees is used, the process is practically instanta- 
neous while a temperature of 140 degrees must be 
maintained for about twenty minutes in order that 
the lactic acid bacteria may be destroyed. Various 
cities have ordinances or health board rulings which 
specify the temperature to be used and the length 
of time which the milk must be held at that 
temperature in order to be sold under the name of 
pasteurized milk. The effect of pasteurization 
upon the taste and digestibility of milk is a much- 
disputed problem. Pasteurization must not be 
confused with sterilization. The latter is the scald- 
ing of milk at within a few degrees of its boiling 
point. This process coagulates the albumen and 
the casein and decreases the digestibility of the 
milk. Pasteurization, if properly carried on, need 
not have any injurious effect upon the quality of 



104 DAIRY FARMING 

the milk, and should under no circumstances give 
it a scorched taste. Pasteurization furthermore is 
the present chief safeguard against the transmit- 
tance of contagious diseases, including tuberculosis, 
through the milk supply. 

Abuse of the Principle of Pasteurization 
Pasteurization, with all its advantages and bene- 
fits, has two main drawbacks. The first and 
most important is that dealers and consumers of 
pasteurized milk abuse the element of safety which 
pasteurization provides. Owing to the fact that 
pasteurization reduces the tendency of milk to 
sour quickly, pasteurized milk is often kept in the 
household for several days. During this time 
other types of bacteria beside the lactic acid germ 
develop. Some of these germs do not produce 
acidity or sourness, but may cause the milk to 
undergo fermentation or peculiar forms of cur- 
dling and decay. Pasteurized milk, several days 
old, is therefore dangerous, not from any fault of 
the pasteurizing process, but because the public 
has abused the safeguard which pasteurization 
affords. 

The second objection to pasteurized milk is 
the slowness with which the cream rises and the 



DAIRY FARMING 105 

incompleteness of the separation. The heating 
process thickens the milk very slightly but 
enough to interfere with the rise of the fat 
globules, collectively known as cream. While 
this objection to pasteurized milk is unjustified, 
nevertheless the public likes to see a liberal 
amount of cream on the milk. 

Chemical Preservatives are Unlawful 

The use of preservatives will keep the milk 
sweet for an indefinite period of time if enough 
of the preservatives are used. Certain chemical 
compounds such as formaldehyde, boric acid and 
other almost tasteless preservatives are used by 
unscrupulous dairymen in order to cover up care- 
less handling and to give their milk the desirable 
quality of remaining sweet a long time. Such 
practices are always against the spirit of the law 
and generally in strict violation of the letter 
of the law. Common table salt, a preservative 
allowed in butter where it also serves to bring 
out the flavor, is barred from milk and cream 
even when these products will subsequently be 
converted into butter. Dairymen should beware 
of all powders, liquids and preparations offered 
for sale for the purpose of lengthening the age of 



106 DAIRY FARMING 

marketable milk. Cold, heat and cleanliness are 
the sole auxiliary forces which the dairyman can 
legally use in putting out a good and sanitary 
grade of milk. 



CHAPTER XII 
CERTIFIED MILK AND ITS PRODUCTION 

Though certified milk is commonly considered 
the highest and purest class of all market milk, 
the term " certified " has only a relative applica- 
tion. Certified milk came into public notice about 
the year 1897 as the result of crusades, especially 
in some of the larger cities, for better milk. 

The value of certified milk depends on the 
standing of the certifier to its purity and what 
the standards of purity are. In most cities, 
responsible citizens interested in a pure milk 
supply form a commission, the officers of which 
are physicians, veterinarians, chemists and milk 
experts of high standing. Inspectors are ap- 
pointed who visit the dairies producing the milk 
to be sold as " certified " and see that all standards 
and requirements are strictly complied with. The 
jonditions under which milk is commonly classed 
as " certified " are as follows : 

The herd must be examined at frequent in- 
tervals, not more than six months apart, by a 

107 



108 DAIRY FARMING 

reputable veterinarian and must prove to be free 
from all diseases. 

Water must be pure, feeds free from taint or 
decay, pastures free from garlic or strong-flavored 
weeds, barns clean, milkers cleanly in person and 
habits, and milk taken care of according to rules 
established by the commission. 

The rules generally specify that milk must be 
cooled to fifty degrees or less immediately after 
it is drawn and delivered to the consumer in the 
shortest possible time, ranging from a few hours 
up to twenty-four depending on transportation 
facilities. 

Visits of Inspectors aee not Announced 
As a check on the producer, inspection of his 
premises and herd are made without announce- 
ment or warning and his milk is examined at 
frequent intervals for its bacterial content. The 
latter term means the number of bacteria per 
cubic centimeter or about a teaspoonful. Ordi- 
nary unpasteurized market milk contains upward 
of a million bacteria per cubic centimeter when 
delivered to the consumer and this number in- 
creases rapidly in the course of a day. The 
maximum bacterial limits established for certified 



DAIRY FARMING 109 

milk are between 10,000 and 100,000 bacteria per 
cubic centimeter. It is impossible even with 
advanced scientific methods to put out large 
quantities of milk containing on an average less 
than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. On 
the other hand, milk containing over 100,000 
bacteria per cubic centimeter cannot properly be 
classed as certified as such a high figure does not 
indicate careful methods of production. 

Summer and Winter Standards 
Some medical or certified milk commissions 
have wisely made two standards of bacterial count, 
one for the summer months and another for the 
winter. Recognizing the difficulty of maintaining 
the milk at a low temperature in hot weather, these 
commissions permit the bacterial count to be 
double that allowed in cold weather. The average 
number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in all 
certified milk runs close to 50,000 in summer and 
25,000 in the winter time. Certified milk, while 
not absolutely pure and free from bacteria, ap- 
proaches ideal milk more than any other form, but 
its high cost of production must be accompanied by 
a high retail price, and here lies a problem which 
the producer must solve with his own ingenuity. 



110 DAIRY FARMING 

Various Grades of Milk Compared 
Until recent years milk has always been just 
" milk " and the public has not learned to recognize 
that pure milk is worth more than impure or in- 
fected milk. The producer must by judicious 
advertising and by an educational campaign dem- 
onstrate that the good milk he places on the 
market is cheaper, considering food value and 
health, than a poorer quality of milk, even though 
the latter is sold at a lower price. In the present 
commercial age, however, certified milk has not 
made very great headway. Pasteurized milk is 
perhaps the safest, and the milk to be most highly 
recommended for purchase by the consumer of 
moderate means. Pasteurized milk costs about 
twenty-five per cent, less than certified milk and 
about ten per cent, more than the cheapest form 
of raw milk. 

The value of certified milk depends upon the 
rigidity with which the inspection of dairies is 
maintained. If the inspection becomes lax at any 
time, certified milk is of no more value than 
ordinary raw milk. Pasteurized milk, on the other 
hand, goes through the daily process of pasteuri- 
zation, which is practically uniform at all times. 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE SCIENCE OP BOTTLED MILK 

While manufacturers of breakfast foods and 
canned goods learned at a very early stage in the 
development of their respective businesses the 
value of an attractive package, dairymen have 
been much slower in this respect. Butter was 
one of the first dairy products to be sold in artis- 
tically-designed wrappers, and now a great deal of 
it goes on the market in the form of attractive 
prints. With the exception of the fancy cheeses, 
cheese is still sliced off in the average grocery 
store and wrapped in common manilla wrapping- 
paper. This fact has been one reason for the very 
dull edge of the cheese appetite of the American 
people. 

In the sale of milk to the city trade, the appear- 
ance of the package has much to do with the 
demand and to the size to which any dairyman's 
business may grow. Many cities have ordinances 
specifying that all milk containers must be kept 
inside of the distributing wagons and that milk 

111 



112 DAIRY FARMING 

bottles cannot be refilled before thoroughly 
washing and sterilizing them at the bottling 
plant. Other cities require all milk to be sold only 
in bottles. While most of these regulations have 
been established purely from a sanitary standpoint 
and for reasons bearing on the public health, they 
have also led the public to recognize the dangers 
from the use of indiscriminate milk receptacles 
and have promoted the present popularity of 
bottled milk. 

The Glass Jar and the Single-Service 
Package 

Though bottling adds to the cost of milk it also 
adds to its value and the public is willing to pay 
the price. However slow they may be to appre- 
ciate the value of pasteurized and certified milk, 
the American people know that bottled milk 
looks better to the eye than a bowl of milk which 
they have seen poured out of a battered tin recep- 
tacle. Many forms of milk bottles have been ex- 
perimented with, but the thick glass jar has proven 
the kind best adapted to stand rough handling and 
the rather severe action of the mechanical washing 
and filling machines. The single-service bottle 
made of heavy paraffined pasteboard was widely 



DAIRY FARMING 113 

exploited for a time ; but it has not proven satis- 
factory, owing to one chief objection. The 
consumer is unable to see how much cream has 
risen to the top of the milk. Other objections are 
their unattractiveness, their expense and their in- 
ability to stand rough handling. 

Different Types of Caps 
The usual form of milk and cream jar is provided 
with a small rim cut inside of the neck to receive 
a paraffined paper cap. The chief objection to this 
kind of cap is the tendency for dirt to accumulate 
on the inside of the neck just around the paper 
cap and when the latter is removed and the milk 
poured out, there is always danger of contamina- 
tion. 

This objection has been overcome by the appli- 
cation to milk bottles of the same form of cap 
used on carbonated beverages, namely, one which 
completely covers the top of the bottle, thus 
protecting it completely. The cap is placed over 
the bottle and clamped on with rapid acting 
machines. As the inside of the metal cap is pro- 
vided with a paraffined disc which exactly covers 
the top of the milk bottle, the contents are her- 
metically sealed ; in fact the seal can be so tightly 



114 



DAIRY FARMING 




XVI. — Half-pint Milk Bottle with im- 
proved metal cap. There is do chance 
for dirt to lodge on the top of the bottle 
and the danger of the bottles being 
chipped is reduced to a minimum. 



DAIRY FARMING 115 

applied that the milk can be pasteurized in the 
bottle and the only possible chance for contamina- 
tion is after the crown cap has been removed by 
the consumer. 

The Package as an Index of its Contents 
Another advantage of this system is the impos- 
sibility of bottles being refilled with low grade 
milk without detection by the consumer, since 
when the cap has once been removed it can never 
be made to fit the bottle tightly again. While 
the metal caps or crowns, as they are commonly 
called, are slightly more expensive than the cheap 
paper caps, the advantages of the system outlined 
appeal to the best trade, with which it is fast find- 
ing favor. 

The highest grade of package so often accom- 
panies the highest grade article that dairymen 
should take advantage of this knowledge and sell 
their product in a form which will inspire the 
confidence of the purchaser. Just as a banker 
cannot gain the confidence of the public if he 
dresses in overalls and jumper, so even the purest 
milk cannot be expected to be in demand if it is 
sold in untidy bottles. 



CHAPTER XIV 
MILK INSPECTION AND ITS PURPOSE 

The dairyman or the person going into the 
dairy business must expect to be intimately 
associated with dairy inspectors at frequent inter- 
vals. The development of civilization has made 
necessary the enactment of certain reasonable 
regulations by which the public may be protected 
against the greed or dishonesty of unscrupulous 
milk dealers. As delicate tests are required to 
determine whether or not milk has been adulter- 
ated, the public is unable to determine for itself 
whether its milk supply is pure. For this reason 
its elected representatives have made laws and 
appointed experts who are constantly watching, 
if they do their duty, for unscrupulous practices 
among producers and dealers of dairy products. 

Rigid dairy inspection makes possible the de- 
velopment of a healthy and prosperous dairy in- 
dustry, since it eliminates dishonest practices and 
destroys dishonest competition. The inspector 
should be looked upon by a law-abiding citizen 

116 



DAIRY FARMING 117 

with as much respect and confidence as is clue a 
sheriff, a police officer or other public servant 
charged with protecting the public's welfare. 
Milk inspectors also act as instructors, and even 
though their directions seem to impose hardships 
upon the producer, beneficial results are in the 
end almost invariably obtained. By reason of 
their wide experience and constant association 
with progressive dairymen, their advice should be 
heeded. 

Rights of Producers, Inspectors and 
Consumers 

Inspectors are vested with authority to inspect 
the premises of the dairyman at all reasonable 
hours of the day and to examine the herd, the 
barns, milk houses, and milk receptacles. Such 
intrusion on one's private property may appear 
uncalled for and be resented, especially by the 
dairyman conscientiously conducting his business. 
The consumer, however, has rights which must be 
protected, and the inspector has no way of deter- 
mining who is doing an honest business or who 
a dishonest one without personally inspecting the 
premises at frequent intervals. 

Were it not for milk inspection the dairy busi- 



118 DAIRY FARMING 

ness would be overrun with slovenly and dishonest 
people who would take advantage of the public 
confidence in good milk by selling adulterated 
and inferior milk at the same price. The states 
where dairy inspection is most rigid are those 
which have the most prosperous and most intelli- 
gent dairymen. 



CHAPTER XV 
DAIRY BUTTER— HOW TO MAKE THE BEST 

In all of the large produce markets, dairy butter 
is quoted several cents less than that made in 
creameries. The commercial inferiority of butter 
made on farms to that made in creameries is due 
first to a lack of uniformity and second to a 
great deal of poor dairy or country butter. Its 
inferiority is due to a considerable degree to un- 
skilled methods of making, careless packing and 
improper care after it is made. Frequently traded 
off at the country store for groceries and supplies, 
it is held at high temperatures until it becomes 
rancid and the only disposition which can be made 
of it is to renovating factories where the bad 
odors are driven off by forcing a blast of air 
through the melted mass, which is then rechurned. 

Owing to the small amount of butter which 
individual farmers are able to produce, they can- 
not take advantage of refrigerator freight cars 
and however good the butter may be when it 
leaves the farm, its quality suffers so severely in 

119 



120 DAIRY FARMING 

transit that its market value is quite low. Bear- 
ing in mind the above facts and the difficulty of 
disposing of butter made on the farm through the 
large produce markets to good advantage, let us 
see what advantages the farm dairy has over the 
creamery. 

The Opening Era of Better Dairy Butter 
The dairyman who desires to engage in farm 
butter making has absolute control of the source 
and the purity of his milk and cream. A good 
quality of finished product invariably depends on 
a satisfactory grade of raw material with which 
to work. Furthermore, he is not obliged to deal 
with problems of milk and cream transportation. 
His cream is always at hand and he knows just 
how much he will have to work with. These few 
advantages more than offset the superior equip- 
ment of the creamery. If the dairyman posts 
himself thoroughly on the principles and practice 
of farm butter making and puts out his product 
in attractive packages, he can compete favorably 
with the best creamery butter in the smaller 
markets and in the local retail trade. The average 
dairy butter is to-day of a much higher quality 
than ten years ago, while the converse is true of 



DAIRY FARMING 121 

creamery butter. The general introduction and 
use of the hand separator has encouraged farmers 
to keep their cream a longer time on the farm 
than was formerly the case, and creamery butter 
makers are in despair over the low quality of raw 
material from which they are expected to make 
butter of merit. Creamery butter is living on its 
old reputation, and the recent drop in butter prices 
is due largely to a drop in quality. 

A Few Essential Principles 
The main factors in the production of fine but- 
ter are first, absolute cleanliness and, second, ab- 
solute control of temperatures. Milk to be used 
for butter-making purposes should be cared for 
with as much solicitude as when it is to be sold 
to a critical market trade. The utensils should 
contain no inaccessible places difficult to wash and 
sterilize, neither should they be rusty or used for 
any other purpose than in the dairy. Utensils 
which have contained milk should be washed first 
in hike- warm water to remove the milk solids, and 
then scalded and allowed to dry without being 
wiped. 

If boiling-hot water is used on milk utensils be- 
fore they are thoroughly cleansed the albuminous 



122 DAIRY FARMING 

portion of the milk will be coagulated and made 
to adhere to the receptacle. Soap or washing 
compounds containing grease should not be tol- 
erated in the dairy. Mineral cleansers only should 
be used. Sunlight is one of the best disinfectants 
known to science and exposure of dairy utensils to 
the bright sun daily will aid greatly in destroying 
the haunts of bacteria which produce bad flavors 
in butter. 

Separation of Mil£ by Centrifugal Force 
The first step in the manufacture of butter is 
the separation of the cream from the milk. For 
this purpose a centrifugal cream separator is the 
best and most satisfactory agent. The old method 
of allowing the cream to rise to the top of the 
milk by keeping it in a quiet, cool place has been 
superseded entirely by this more modern way. 
The method of setting the milk is also very ex- 
pensive, since not over eighty per cent, of the fat 
is recovered from the milk as compared with 
about ninety-nine per cent, with a modern centrif- 
ugal separator. The separator furthermore clari- 
fies the cream by removing mechanical impuri- 
ties. 
Still another advantage is the ability of the 



DAIRY FARMING 123 

operator to secure the richness or thickness of 
cream most desired. 

Operation of the separator is simple, and the 
principle is but a development of the separation 
of the cream by gravity. The milk flows from a 
supply can into a rapidly revolving bowl. The 
speed varies from six thousand to twelve thousand 
revolutions per minute in different makes of ma- 
chines. The cream being lighter than the milk is 
forced toward the center of the bowl, while the 
skim-milk occupies a position as far from the center 
as possible. 

Separate spouts remove the cream and skim- 
milk, the process being almost continuous. 

Care of the Cream 

Milk separates best while still warm from the 
cow, although some machines will do fairly good 
work with cold milk. The best time for separat- 
ing milk is immediately after milking is over, since 
the skim-milk Avill have a greater feeding value 
when fresh. As calves, hogs and other live stock 
make rapid and healthy gains on skim-milk this 
side-line of the dairy is worth developing. 

When the cream has been separated, it is im- 
mediately cooled by placing the can containing it 



124 DAIRY FARMING 

in cold water which is constantly being renewed. 
Warm and cold cream should never be mixed, as 
a disagreeable flavor is likely to be developed. 
All of the steps in handling the cream should be 
conducted in a sweet-smelling, clean and sanitary 
room or building. Milk rooms partly or entirely 
underground or near the barn-yard or manure pile 
will ruin the quality of the cream in a very short 
time. 

The Process of Ripening 

The purpose up to the present point has been to 
keep the cream sweet and clean flavored. If the 
cream should now be churned, a product known 
as sweet-cream butter would be secured. Owing 
to its rather flat taste, this kind of butter is not in 
demand with the average trade and is seldom 
found on the market in large quantities. The 
public desires a flavor in butter which is suggest- 
ive of mild " aging " or a " rich " flavor, as it 
is commonly called. In order to obtain this flavor, 
the cream must first be ripened. The ripening 
process is merely souring the cream in such a way 
that the lactic acid bacteria, previously mentioned, 
may develop. In order to secure the desired lac- 
tic acid flavor, a small amount of " starter " is now 



DAIRY FARMING 125 

added to the cream. A starter is merely sour 
milk which has the desired flavor. 

Making the Staeter 

To make a starter simply fill several quart glass 
jars with sweet milk, either whole or skimmed, 
and allow them to stand until the milk has soured. 
If the curd is solid and has a rather pleasant sharp 
taste, and if the curd becomes rich and creamy on 
being shaken up, the starter may be considered 
good. 

If on the other hand it is full of gas holes 
and has an unpleasant, bitter or repulsive taste, 
undesirable bacteria have gained predominance 
over the lactic acid germs and the starter is 
worthless. A starter will develop best if kept in 
a warm room ; it will generally be ready for use 
in about twenty-four hours. Starter may also be 
purchased in the form of bottled cultures, but for 
the farm dairyman, the home-made starter is rec- 
ommended. 

When the starter has become quite firm, it is 
ready for use. The amount which will be re- 
quired depends chiefly on the condition of the 
cream. Cream that is very sour requires no starter 
at all if the cream is of a good flavor, but if the 



126 DAIRY FARMING 

flavor is bad, a very large amount will be required 
to overcome the defect. The usual rule for add- 
ing starter is to use one-tenth as much starter as 
there is cream. A rather disturbing influence in 
the use of starter is the thickness of the cream. 
As it churns best when containing about thirty 
per cent, of butterf at, the amount of starter should 
never be so great that its addition will make a very 
thin cream. The ripening process requires constant 
study and a constant readjustment of rules and for- 
mulas if the best butter is to be made at all times. 
Ripening of a batch of cream is most satis- 
factorily done in a large sanitary metal vat. 
Those used by creameries are provided with coils 
or compartments for cooling or heating purposes. 
Stirring is always beneficial, as it makes the cream 
ripen uniformly and maintains an even tempera- 
ture throughout the entire batch. 

Churning Temperatures 
The best temperature at which to churn is about 
fifty-four degrees Fahrenheit in the summer time 
and sixty degrees in the winter. The cream 
should be kept at this temperature or slightly be- 
low it for about three hours before churning, so 
that the butterf at may have an opportunity to be- 



DAIRY FARMING 127 

come as cold as the liquid portion of the cream. 
In practice, the butterfat is generally a few 
degrees warmer unless this precaution is taken. 

The only step now to be considered before the 
operation of churning is the determination of the 
time that the cream is sufficiently ripe or " ready." 
Experience is the best teacher for this determina- 
tion, but until the necessary amount of practice has 
been obtained, any of the widely advertised acid 
tests may be used. Cream is ready for churning 
when the flavor is sharply acid, though not bitter. 
This point will be reached when the acid test 
shows about six-tenths of one per cent, of acid- 
ity (.6). 

Superiority of the Barrel Churn 
Without question the best type of churn for use 
in the small dairy is the old-fashioned barrel 
churn. A large dairy where several hundred 
pounds of butter are churned daily may advanta- 
geously be equipped with a small size of factory 
churn. To prepare the churn for the cream first 
wash out with cold water, then fill about one-fifth 
full with boiling water and after clamping down 
the lid, revolve a few times. During this opera- 
tion the draining plug should be out in order that 



128 DAIRY FARMING 

the steam generated will not explode the churn. 
The purpose of this treatment is to thoroughly- 
saturate the wood with water so that the butter 
will not stick to it. Now pour out the warm water 
and cool the churn by means of cold water or ice 
if it is available. 

The Principle of Churning 
Cream is now added until the churn is about one- 
third full. The exact amount of cream will de- 
pend somewhat on the shape of the churn, but 
never put more cream into the churn than can be 
thoroughly agitated. The concussion of the cream 
on the side and on the bottom of the churn is the 
force which welds the fat globules together and 
makes them into butter. If the churn is too full, 
the length of time required for butter to come 
may be more than twice as great as though one- 
half of the cream was churned at a time. The 
ordinary time for churning is forty-five minutes. 
If butter comes in less than this time, the tempera- 
ture of the cream when added to the churn was 
too high, and the butter is likely to be of a weak 
body and greasy texture. If more than forty -five 
minutes is required for churning, the temperature 
of the cream was probably too low, and when the 



DAIRY FARMING 129 

butter forms, it is likely to come in a hard, solid 
mass. Both extremes are objectionable and the 
operator should seek to avoid them. 

Washing and Salting the Butter 
When the butter globules become visible to the 
eye, it is a sign that churning is nearly completed, 
and when the individual lumps slightly exceed the 
size of wheat or rice kernels, the churning should 
be stopped. The buttermilk is allowed to drain 
off, but its quantity should be measured. Then an 
amount of water equal to the volume of the but- 
termilk is placed in the churn, the buttermilk plug- 
being replaced in the meantime, and the churn 
should be revolved slowly. This does not result 
in any further churning of the butter, but washes 
out any buttermilk which may have adhered to 
the butter globules. This process is called wash- 
ing the butter, and the temperature of the wash 
water should be about that of the buttermilk, at 
least no warmer, or some of the butter may become 
melted and washed away. 

The amount of salt to be added will depend 
upon the demands of trade. One should carefully 
ascertain whether the purchaser desires a highly 
or lightly-salted butter. The average rale is one 



130 DAIRY FARMING 

ounce of salt for every pound of butter. Add the 
salt dry but sprinkle well over the butter. Give 
the churn a few turns and allow to stand for 
several minutes. One of the most common faults 
in dairy butter is the uneven distribution of the 
salt and nothing can be done to remedy the evil 
after the butter has been packed unless it is re- 
churned, which is an expensive process and can 
easily be avoided by care in working the butter. 
The old method of working the salt well into the 
butter by means of a paddle has been superseded 
by table workers, or, in the larger churns, by 
rollers inside of the churn so that the butter can 
be worked without being removed from the churn. 

The Process of Working 

Working the butter causes the salt to be uni- 
formly distributed and also affects the texture of 
the finished product. If a table worker is used, 
the butter is spread out on the bed and divided into 
two portions ; one portion is placed upon the 
other and a roller is then passed back and forth 
until the butter has become smooth. An ideal 
texture is secured when the butter assumes a waxy 
appearance and feeling. Under no circumstances 
should working be continued until the butter has 



DAIRY FARMING 131 

been reduced to a salve-like or greasy texture. 
Such a texture is known among commission men 
as a " weak body," and the best prices can never 
be secured for such a piece of butter. 

The style of packing the butter for market must 
be determined by the kind of package most in 
demand. The old-fashioned stoneware crocks are 
suitable under some circumstances for private 
marketing or a local trade, but even such a pack- 
age is not as attractive as a pound print neatly 
wrapped in parchment paper and then placed in 
either a cardboard carton or a wrapper printed in 
colors. Do not put any wrapping containing 
colors next to the butter, since consumers object 
to having printer's ink next to their food. 
Wooden boxes which will contain a considerable 
number of the prints are used for marketing 
butter put up in this form. Harmless artificial 
coloring matter may be used to give butter the 
shade of yellow demanded by the trade. 

Establishing a High-Class Trade 

For purposes of advertising as well as to insure 

customers against inferior grades of butter, the 

dairyman should have his name or trade-mark on 

every package he sells. Obviously only the very 



132 DAIRY FARMING 

best butter should be put up under such a private 
brand, and in case a churning is inferior to the 
usual grade of butter produced, such a churning 
should be disposed of through some other channel. 
The marketing of butter in rolls or ununiform 
packages will always result in lower prices and a 
less satisfactory demand. The dairyman who can 
always be relied upon for furnishing butter of a 
consistently high quality can charge more than 
the usual market price without injury to the 
volume of his business. The weight of any 
package of butter should correspond with the 
reputation of the dairyman. Packages which are 
short weight as little as half an ounce reflect on 
the honesty of the dairyman who will suffer 
in the end, either under the law or in the estima- 
tion of his fellow men. The weight of the wrapper 
or package, even though of light paper, should 
never be included in the weight of butter sold and 
paid for. 



CHAPTER XVI 
IS FAKM CHEESE MAKING PEACTICAL ? 

In the development of the dairy industry of the 
world, the tendency has been to remove the 
manufacture of dairy products from the farm to 
specially-equipped factories managed by experts 
in their various lines. The more complicated the 
process, the more complete has been the removal. 
Taking condensed milk as one of the most difficult 
dairy products to make on a farm, we find that 
practically one hundred per cent, of the output of 
this product is made in factories. About two- 
thirds of the butter made in the United States is 
manufactured in creameries, and when we come 
to cheese, statistics show that of late years only 
about five per cent, of the total output in this 
country is made on farms, which indicates that 
cheese making is rather too difficult and com- 
plicated a process to be conducted to advantage 
on farms. 

This conclusion is entirely justified, for with the 
demands of the regular trade for large quantities 

133 



134 DAIRY FARMING 

of cheese of uniform quality, age and package, the 
dairyman cannot hope to compete with the skilled 
cheese maker, who has many more conveniences to 
work with and who has made the manufacture of 
cheese a business. The preceding remarks apply 
to the making of those varieties of cheese which 
are found quoted in market reports and which go 
to our large cities in wholesale lots. Among 
these varieties are American or Cheddar cheese, 
brick, Swiss, Limburger and the manufactured soft 
cream cheeses. But outside of this list there are a 
few common varieties which are adapted to manu- 
facture on the farm. In all there are some 282 
different varieties of cheese, most .of which are of 
European origin, and many are made from the 
milk of sheep and goats. 

Vakieties Adapted foe Manufacture on 
the Farm 

The varieties which can be made with the best 
assurance of success and profit on American farms 
are cottage cheese, sour cream curd (also called 
English cream cheese) and French cream cheese. 

Cottage cheese is frequently referred to as Dutch 
cheese, pot cheese and schmiercase ; all refer to 
identically the same product. Either whole or 



DAIRY FARMING 135 

skimmed milk is used in its manufacture, but more 
commonly the latter. Set a large pan or vat 
containing the milk near a stove where the tem- 
perature will range between ninety and one 
hundred and forty degrees. In the course of a day 
the milk will curdle. The curdling process may 
be hastened by adding a small amount of sour 
milk. Allow to stand a few hours more until the 
curd has separated well from the whey and then 
drain through cheese-cloth. After the whey has 
drained off fairly well, the cloth strainer contain- 
ing the curd may be squeezed gently to expel 
more of the whey. The curd is then washed with 
luke-warm water and next with cold water. This 
removes any particles of whey which may have 
remained and adds greatly to the keeping quality 
of the cheese. 

CoMMon Faults of Cottage Cheese 
The curd is now lightly salted or seasoned with 
various spices according to the demands of the 
consumer. It may then be made into balls about 
two inches in diameter, packed in pasteboard 
buckets or put into other marketable form. 
Under no circumstances should cottage cheese be 
offered for sale as a semi-liquid mass. If the curd 



136 DAIRY FARMING 

is not sufficiently dry to be handled easily and 
made into balls, the straining off of the whey was 
incomplete and the cheese will neither make a 
favorable appearance to the purchaser nor will it 
keep well. Properly-made cottage cheese can be 
sold in cities and villages for from ten to fifteen 
cents per pound. It is sometimes eaten fresh with 
the addition of a little cream or butter. 

Sour cream curd, or English cream cheese, is 
made by straining the whey from thick, sour 
cream until the curd is dry. The straining is best 
accomplished by placing the cream in a strong 
linen bag which can be twisted to force out the 
whey. The dry mass is then salted and put into 
a convenient form for marketing. As cream is 
the basis for this kind of cheese, the profits de- 
rived are small unless the cheese is made only 
when sour cream is at hand and no other means 
of disposing of it are available. 

French Cream Cheese 
French cream cheese is the name applied to a 
wide variety of soft cheeses. The genuine prod- 
uct is made by first adding to fresh milk sufficient 
rennet to cause it to curdle in two to four hours. 
After being allowed to stand undisturbed for 



DAIRY FARMING 137 

twenty-four hours, the whey is carefully poured 
off without disturbing the curd. The latter is 
then cut in slices and drained on a clean muslin 
sieve, after which fresh sweet cream is added and 
thoroughly mixed with the curd by stirring and 
mashing. The product may then be placed in 
small jars or wrapped in wax paper, which is in 
turn covered with tin-foil. This cheese should be 
eaten while fresh. 

In marketing the varieties of cheese just de- 
scribed, the dairyman should study the nature of 
the demand and should endeavor to make his 
products of uniform excellence. Judicious adver- 
tising in local papers or by post card announce- 
ments to former customers will stimulate and 
create an interest in these products if the public 
does not respond at once to the opportunity of 
securing these varieties of cheese at a reasonable 
price. The consumer is generally eager, how- 
ever, to vary his diet with something new and 
fresh and in many cases the manufacture of these 
simple varieties of cheese will be a profitable side- 
line of the dairy. 



CHAPTEK XVII 

THE TRUTH ABOUT THE TUBERCULIN 

TEST 

The past ten years have witnessed the develop- 
ment and organization of civic bodies all over the 
country for the purpose of lighting and eradicat- 
ing the disease tuberculosis, which is common to 
both man and many domestic animals. While 
the nature and the symptoms of the disease in the 
human and in the animal body are not identical, 
they are so similar that the question arose at an early 
date, " Is the disease of tuberculosis in animals, 
particularly the cow, transmissible to mankind ? " 

Eminent scientists disagreed for a time as to the 
correct answer to this question, as there was abun- 
dant scientific evidence to support both sides, but 
after several years of close observation by doctors 
and health officials, irrefutable evidence accumu- 
lated which showed that mankind, particularly 
infants and small children, can contract tubercu- 
losis by consuming milk from animals which are 
affected with the disease. 

138 



DAIRY FARMING 139 

Questions to be Considered 

Tuberculosis is found in a small percentage of 
cattle all over the world, and wherever cattle are 
kept in large herds or indoors a great deal of the 
time the percentage is slightly greater than where 
the animals are on a large range. The impor- 
tance of a thorough understanding of the disease 
is therefore evident if a dairyman hopes to be 
successful in keeping his animals healthy and ex- 
pects to sell dairy products known to be free from 
death-dealing germs. 

The main considerations in which the dairyman 
is interested are as follows : 

What harm will tuberculosis do in my herd ? 

How can I tell if an animal has tuberculosis ? 

How can I get rid of it if I find it among my 
animals ? 

Is the tuberculin test reliable ? 

Why do some animals which have been con- 
demned and killed show no signs of the disease ? 

Is there any danger of infecting a healthy herd 
by the use of the tuberculin test ? 

In case an animal or several animals fail to pass 
the test and are condemned, must the owner of 
the animal bear the total loss ? 

The first question " What harm will tubercu- 



140 DAIRY FARMING 

losis do in my herd ? " can be answered thus : One 
animal affected with the disease can impart the 
disease to every other animal in the herd and 
probably to every human being who is working 
with the herd. Animals affected with tubercu- 
losis will finally die of the disease, but not until 
they have lingered for a sufficiently long time to 
make their milk very dangerous. When the 
animals die, they are useless as food. 

The second question, "How can I tell if an 
animal has tuberculosis ? " is answered thus : The 
tuberculin test is the only definite means of estab- 
lishing the presence of the disease in an animal. 

Making the Tuberculin Test 
The tuberculin test consists in injecting a 
sterile extract of tubercle bacilli underneath the 
skin of an animal suspected of having the disease. 
The extract cannot possibly contain any living 
tubercle germs and is therefore perfectly harm- 
less. There is no effect upon the flow of the milk 
to any extent. 

The presence of the disease is indicated by a 
rise in the temperature in the animal treated of 
three or four degrees. The greatest rise occurs 
about twelve hours after the tuberculin has been 



DAIRY FARMING 



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142 DAIRY FARMING 

injected, and the temperature again returns to 
normal after about twenty-four hours. The 
temperature is taken with a clinical thermometer 
which is inserted its full length in the rectum of 
the animal. A short chain with a clip at one end 
which is fastened to the tail of the animal is 
attached to the thermometer and thus prevents 
danger of breaking should the thermometer be 
ejected. The tuberculin is injected just beneath 
the skin on the shoulder or the back part of the 
neck where the skin can easily be drawn together 
with the fingers in a fold. If an animal is healthy 
there will be very little if any fluctuation in the 
temperature, but if affected with the disease a rise 
will occur. 

The chart shows typical fluctuations in the 
temperature of healthy and unhealthy animals. 
The temperatures are taken about every two 
hours and a careful record is kept in order that 
the fluctuations may be compared. In practice 
one person can test a dozen animals as quickly 
and as well as he can apply the test to only a few. 

When Not to Test 

Animals may be tested at any time except the 
following : when a cow is about to calve or has 



DAIRY FARMING 143 

just dropped a calf ; when an animal is suffering 
from an inflammatory disease or is otherwise 
likely to have a fever ; when an animal is in heat. 
It is best not to apply the tuberculin test during 
extremely hot weather, since the temperatures are 
likely to be rather high from natural causes and 
may lead to the condemnation of an animal which 
is not affected with tuberculosis. 

There is no way, other than the tuberculin 
test, of determining definitely whether a cow is 
affected with the disease. In the very advanced 
stages of the disease a cow will cough, show signs 
of unthriftiness, hold her head down and other- 
wise appear sick. These symptoms are noticed, 
however, after the disease has existed in her body 
for a great length of time. Yet even these are 
not sure indications that tuberculosis is the cause 
of her bad condition. 

When the diseased animals have been deter- 
mined, the sooner that they are disposed of, the 
quicker the spread of the disease in the herd will 
be checked. It takes several years of testing to 
be absolutely sure that the disease has been 
eradicated. The reason for this is the fact that 
at the time of the first testing, the tubercle germs 
may have just been received into the body of 



144 DAIRY FARMING 

healthy animals but have not developed suf- 
ficiently to cause the animal to react to the test. 
When a second test, however, is made a year 
later, the disease is readily detected. As a rule 
a third test will fail to show diseased animals 
provided that those formerly condemned were 
quickly disposed of and no others were introduced 
without first passing the test. 

Organs and Tissues Commonly Affected 
The post-mortem examination of animals con- 
demned will show the extent to which the disease 
has affected the body. The part most commonly 
showing lesions of the disease are the liver, lungs, 
mesenteries and connecting tissue, the udder and 
sometimes the windpipe. Any of the internal 
organs may be affected, also portions of the bone, 
muscles, and even the brain of the cow. The 
tuberculin test does not show the extent of the 
disease or its location but merely proves that the 
disease is present somewhere in the animal. If 
there is an uncertain reaction, a cow should be 
tested within three or four months so that she 
will not be in the herd a needless length of time. 
Do not run any chance of infecting the other 
animals with the disease. 



DAIRY FARMING 145 

Some of the many skeptical people who in- 
variably stand in the way of progressive move- 
ments point to the fact that sometimes an animal 
is condemned for tuberculosis on the basis of the 
tuberculin test and on being slaughtered fails to 
show any indication whatever of the disease. 
Errors of such a kind are due not to any fault of 
the test, which is scientifically perfect and in it- 
self accurate, but to errors in its application and 
manipulation. The operator who makes the tests 
should note whether the animals are excited and 
if so should ascertain whether their nervousness 
is sufficient to cause an elevated temperature. 
The operator should be competent to do the work 
and take the readings correctly. Unfortunately 
every one who tests cattle is not above the pos- 
sibility of making an error, but mistakes of this 
nature should be charged up to human frailty and 
not to the tuberculin test. 

Errors Not Due to Fault of Test 
Furthermore the post-mortem examination of 
condemned animals is not always made carefully 
enough to detect the presence of the disease when 
it is present in the body outside of the places 
where tubercular growths are generally found. 



146 DAIRY FARMING 

This is also the error of the veterinarian and not 
of the test. 

Laws of different states vary to a great extent 
in the disposal of the carcasses of animals affected 
with tuberculosis. If the disease has made but 
little headway, the carcass may be passed by duly- 
appointed inspectors and the healthy portions may 
be sold for beef. If the animal is badly diseased, 
it is generally buried in quicklime. In case the 
inspection and the testing have been done by a 
duly-appointed official representing the state, the 
dairyman, in some states, is reimbursed to the ex- 
tent of three-fourths of the value of condemned 
animals. One should become familiar with the 
dairy laws of his state so that the greatest com- 
pensation possible may be received for tubercular 
animals disposed of under the regulations of live- 
stock boards. 

How to Disinfect Daiey Premises 
When the herd has been freed from tuberculosis 
in the manner just described, the barns and the 
premises should be thoroughly disinfected. Every- 
thing movable should be taken from the barn, and 
all smooth surfaces scrubbed, scraped and freed 
from dust and dirt. Then every square inch of 



DAIRY FARMING 147 

surface should be thoroughly whitewashed with 
fresh lime. Burning sulphur is not an effective 
disinfectant. A saturated solution of corrosive 
sublimate (mercuric chloride) which can be secured 
at any drug store is also effective for spraying the 
walls and disinfecting manure heaps and litter 
which cannot be treated with whitewash. 

Healthy Calves fkom Diseased Cows 
If a condemned animal is a pure-bred or other- 
wise of great value, a careful breeder can raise 
healthy calves from such a cow, provided that cer- 
tain fundamental precautions be taken to prevent 
the transmission of the disease from the mother to 
the calf. First, such a cow should be kept in abso- 
lute quarantine and no other animals should be 
allowed in the same building or pasture. The 
calves should be removed from the mother as soon 
as they have been dropped, and fed on the milk 
of other animals. Such management involves a 
great deal of work and continual care as well as 
risk to the healthy animals of the herd, though 
they are kept apart. In the great majority of 
cases, it is far better to kill every animal affected 
with tuberculosis. 

The latter plan also gives purchasers of dairy 



148 DAIRY FARMING 

stock greater confidence when in search of healthy 
animals to add to their own herds. A dairy farm 
on which animals affected with tuberculosis are 
kept is always regarded with suspicion, and sales 
cannot be made to the best advantage. 



CHAPTEK XVIII 
DAIRY ORGANIZATIONS 

Whatever branch of dairying one may follow, 
he will be well repaid by affiliating himself with 
a number of the more important dairy organiza- 
tions of the country. Milk shippers have their 
protective associations in order to secure fair 
prices for their milk and to be able to resist un- 
fair treatment by middlemen and city distributors. 
Those dairymen who sell milk to creameries are 
often members of local creamery associations 
which sometimes direct the management of the 
creamery and very often own the building and its 
equipment. In any case, an association of the 
patrons of a creamery or a cheese factory has in- 
fluence in securing for its members fair treatment 
and the best prices possible for their product. 

There are also in many states dairymen's asso- 
ciations which look to the development of the 
dairy industry in general and to the protection of 
the industry against fraudulent substitutes, unjust 
laws and other abuses. Some dairymen's associa- 

149 



150 DAIRY FARMING 

tions also are interested in the breeding of pure- 
bred stock and of assisting its members to detect 
and remove unprofitable animals from their herds. 

Educational and Commercial Value oe 
Dairy Meetings 

If the dairyman is making a fancy grade of 
dairy butter, he should avail himself of the oppor- 
tunity to have it scored or judged by experts in 
charge of the butter contests which are now held 
in many states in connection with dairymen's con- 
ventions and in dairy schools. County and state 
fairs frequently have displays of fine butter and 
the dairymen who exhibit their butter in such 
prominent places not only receive excellent ad- 
vertising but may win valuable prizes usually 
offered. 

Aside from the commercial value of asso- 
ciating oneself with other dairymen, a very 
important educational benefit arises from the dis- 
cussions one hears at conventions and also from 
the personal contact with others. In addition to 
the benefits which may be derived from the or- 
ganizations mentioned, a dairyman often requires 
expert advice on a wide number of subjects per- 
taining to his business. In a book of this nature 



DAIRY FARMING 151 

a great many of the details of dairying must be 
sacrificed for the presentation of the greater 
and more important principles, but the following 
sources of information will be of invaluable help 
in solving some of the smaller perplexing prob- 
lems. 

Value Service Available from Federal 
Government 

The Dairy Division of the United States De- 
partment of Agriculture is in a position to furnish 
persons engaged in dairying with general infor- 
mation of all kinds. Among the services which 
may be expected from the experts of the Dairy 
Division are personal letters in answer to in- 
quiries, blue print plans for dairy buildings, advice 
as to the manufacture of dairy products, informa- 
tion concerning national dairy laws, bulletins 
dealing with practically all branches and phases 
of dairying and, if the importance of the request 
demands it, a special agent will sometimes be sent 
to the farm of the dairyman to render him per- 
sonal assistance. In fact, nothing is so small that 
the Dairy Division will not give it prompt and 
careful attention. Inquiries may be addressed to 
either the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, 



152 DAIRY FARMING 

D. C, or, if an immediate answer is desired, it 
may be sent to the Chief of the Dairy Di- 
vision, Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. 



Duties of State Daiey Depaktments 

The Dairy and Food Departments of the differ- 
ent states are in a position to furnish dairymen 
with information concerning state dairy laws. 
Most of the dairy commissions are also compelled 
by law to investigate and act on violations of the 
law reported by reputable persons. Such a re- 
quirement makes it possible for a dairyman who is 
in competition with a person who is using fraudu- 
lent methods or who is selling his products to a 
creamery which he believes is defrauding him in 
payment, to have the matter investigated. In this 
manner those who are conducting a legal business 
are protected and those who are violating laws 
are either put out of the business or are com- 
pelled to improve their policy. The dairy com- 
missions generally have inspectors who can be 
called upon to visit one's farm and make sugges- 
tions for improvements from a sanitary point of 
view. 



DAIRY FARMING 153 

Advantages of Dairy School Assistance 
In nearly every state of the Union there is a 
dairy school the members of whose faculty 
are well qualified as experts and as educators. 
Correspondence addressed to the professor of 
dairying at such a school will receive about the 
same attention given by the Dairy Division al- 
ready described. The particular advantage of 
dairy school assistance lies in the fact that the 
latter is nearer, is more quickly obtained and that 
the professors of such a state institution are for the 
most part more familiar with local conditions than 
are the national authorities whose scope is much 
broader and therefore their services must be along 
more general lines. 

In case one is interested in extending his 
knowledge of the science of dairying particularly, 
correspondence may be addressed to these dairy 
schools, which will supply information regarding 
the courses of instruction given. During the 
winter months there are generally a number of 
short courses ranging in length from one to four- 
teen weeks and covering branches extending from 
dairy herd management to the operation of ma- 
chinery and tests for dairy products. As most of 
these courses are given about the middle of winter 



154 DAIRY FARMING 

when other work on the farm is not pressing, a 
great many progressive dairymen avail themselves 
of the opportunities afforded. 

Seevices Extended by Dairy Publications 

The editors of dairy papers, of which there is a 
considerable number in the United States, are in a 
position to furnish information concerning the best 
makes of churns, stanchions, manure carriers and 
the great list of sundry equipment, which is 
needed on every dairy farm. In order to get the 
quickest and most satisfactory service, one should 
be a subscriber to the paper. The advertising 
matter of first-class dairy papers is always re- 
liable, and information of the kind mentioned 
may be obtained directly by writing to advertisers 
and securing their catalogues. Breeding animals 
may also be obtained by looking over the cards of 
breeders in dairy-paper advertising matter, and 
corresponding with those breeders who seem to 
have the best selection. Books on some of the 
detailed subjects connected with the dairy industry, 
such as ice-cream making, and manufacture of 
fancy cheese, may also be obtained through the 
dairy papers. The editors will also take care of 



DAIRY FARMING 155 

inquiries on questions which may be asked of 
them. 

Information on Animal Diseases 
In a great many of the dairy states there is a 
sanitary board which deals with animal diseases 
and the suppression of epidemics. In case of the 
breaking out of a disease in the dairy herd or if 
an animal requires prompt medical attention, cor- 
respondence should be addressed to this board, 
which will either furnish a veterinarian or will give 
the address of a competent veterinarian in the 
nearest town. The post-office address of the san- 
itary board is generally at the state capital and 
can always be secured by writing either to the 
state dairy school or to the editor of a state dairy 
or agricultural paper. 

Interest is centered once a year in the National 
Dairy Show, which generally is held some time 
during the fall in one of the principal cities of the 
central West. The show extends over a period of 
about ten days and during this time most of the 
prominent national dairy organizations hold their 
conventions. In connection with the Dairy Show 
there are exhibits of cattle, dairy products, ma- 
chinery for dairy purposes, supplies, demonstra- 



156 DAIRY FARMING 

tions and addresses by national dairy authorities 
on questions of vital interest. The show is at- 
tended by progressive dairymen from all parts of 
the country and the benefits derived from attend- 
ing will far outweigh the expense. 

The exact date and the place for holding the 
Dairy Show is announced by all of the prominent 
dairy papers about the latter part of July. A list 
of the meetings and of the organizations which 
will convene at that time may be obtained either 
from the editors of dairy publications or from the 
Dairy Division of the United States Department 
of Agriculture. 



CHAPTER XIX 

HOW AND WHY THE DAIRY MARKETS 
FLUCTUATE 

In whatever branch of dairying one may be en- 
gaged, his income will be affected by the condition 
of the markets for dairy products. Of all the 
principal products, milk fluctuates the least in value 
when it is sold for direct consumption. Raw milk 
retails in the cities of the United States for from 
five to ten cents a quart. It is cheapest in the 
central West and dearest in the extreme East and 
on the Pacific Coast. The average for the entire 
country is about seven cents a quart. During the 
winter months, the price is from one to two cents 
a quart higher than in the summer. In the far 
South the purity of the milk supply is dependent 
on the great problem of keeping it at low tempera- 
tures, and the expense of keeping the milk cool of 
course adds to its ultimate cost to the consumer. 

The reason why milk is higher during the winter 
than in the summer is the higher cost of feed and 
the increased quantity required to maintain a 

*157 



158 DAIRY FARMING 

liberal flow of milk. The higher cost of milk in 
the East than in the central West is due first to 
the more rigid sanitary requirements to which 
the dairymen must conform and second to the 
greater distance which milk must be shipped. 
The prices mentioned are those the consumer pays. 
The net returns to the dairymen are more nearly 
the same all over the country. Cream prices for 
the city trade vary about the same as milk, cream 
being usually four times as expensive as milk, 
volume for volume. Unless the dairymen supply- 
ing milk to a city or town have some form of or- 
ganization, they are powerless to determine what 
prices their product is to bring. 

Makket Milk Prices are Governed by 
Local Factors 

The city milk dealers usually fix the price, or if 
the dairyman delivers his milk from his own 
wagons, he will be boycotted by the public if he 
advances his prices over those charged by other 
distributors. The public has not yet learned to 
discriminate between good and bad milk, and will 
generally purchase the lowest-priced milk, provided 
it does not seem objectionable in any way. The 
latter remarks apply chiefly to the smaller towns 



DAIRY FARMING 159 

where milk inspection is not actively carried on. 
Obviously the market for milk and cream for 
direct consumption depends very largely on the 
attitude of the public toward the milk supply and 
upon local conditions of supply and demand. 
These must of course be considered before engag- 
ing in the business near any particular town for the 
purpose of contributing to its milk supply. As a 
general proposition, the value and the prices of 
milk for direct consumption are increasing every- 
where in the country. 

The Three Great Butter Markets 
The price of butter and of milk and cream sold 
to creameries depends on three large wholesale 
markets, New York City, Chicago and Elgin, 
The commission merchants of these markets have 
their finger upon the pulse of the public. They 
know about how much of each grade of butter 
their trade will require each month of the year. 
They know how much butter is in cold storage in 
all parts of the country and they are good guessers, 
for the most part, of the price the public will pay. 
The New York market is about one cent higher on 
the average than the Chicago and Elgin markets 
owing to the greater distance which butter must be 



160 DAIRY FARMING 

shipped. The bulk of all creamery butter is made 
in the central West. 

The Situation in the West 
On the Pacific Coast, the prices are somewhat 
higher than in the East, but the geographical lay 
of the land and the difficulty of shipping butter to 
the coast cities have contributed to the high prices 
which do not promise to be permanent owing to 
the rapid development of creameries and dairy 
herds in recent years. The large ranches are fast 
being broken up into smaller holdings on which 
dairying is an important branch of the farming 
being conducted. 

As milk or cream sold to creameries is paid for, 
with very few exceptions, according to the amount 
of butterf at it contains, and since the market value 
of butterf at varies directly with the price of 
butter, the interest of the producer in the market 
situation is evident. The only way in which the 
producer can influence market prices is by selling 
to the creamery only the highest grade of product, 
thus enabling the creamery to make a uniformly 
good grade of butter. There is always an active 
demand for good butter at satisfactory prices all 
around. 



DAIRY FARMING 161 

Cheese Factories as Markets 
Milk sold to cheese factories is paid for in a 
number of ways, the method being . generally 
determined by the patrons. Perhaps the most 
common method is by weight, on the basis of one 
hundred pounds. For example, if the current 
price is $1.40 per hundred, each patron receives 
this rate of payment regardless of the richness or 
purity of his milk. The only reasonable explana- 
tion for the justness of this method of payment is 
that normal milk does not vary sufficiently in its 
value for cheese making to demand an analysis of 
its constituents, on the basis of which payment 
should be made. Thus the rather approximate 
method of paying for cheese milk by weight con- 
tinues to be practiced. 

Another method of paying for milk delivered to 
cheese factories is according to the Babcock test 
in the same manner as is done by creameries. 
The milk is weighed and tested for its butterfat 
content. The weight of the milk is multiplied by 
the test which gives the number of pounds of fat 
and the product is multiplied by the current price 
for butterfat. The prices paid by cheese factories 
are determined by the prices secured for the 
finished product. The latter are determined by the 



162 DAIRY FARMING 

condition of both the market and the cheese. 
Cheese markets are, as a rule, more stable than 
butter markets, though fluctuations may occur 
when least suspected. The chief objection to pay- 
ing for cheese milk according to the Babcock test 
is that the value of milk for cheese making depends 
not upon its content of fat but upon both the fat 
and the casein. In addition to a difference in 
flavor caused by bacterial action, cheese differs 
from butter in that the former consists largely of 
casein or albuminous matter, whereas butter con- 
tains but a fraction of one per cent, of such a con- 
stituent. Therefore the most rational manner of 
paying for cheese milk is according to both the 
fat and the casein tests, or as they are more com- 
monly called, the Babcock and the Hart tests, 
each bearing the name of its originator. 

The Danger of the Condensery 

Another market for milk which varies consider- 
ably is- the condensery, or plant in which milk is 
manufactured in the various kinds of condensed, 
evaporated and prepared milks put up in tin cans. 
Most of the condenseries in the United States are 
located in New York, Pennsylvania, northern 
Illinois, Wisconsin, Washington and Oregon. The 



DAIRY FARMING 163 

condenseries are for the most part controlled by 
a few persons or companies, and the farmer has 
no means of determining the prices he is to receive 
except by organizing to demand higher prices 
when such demands are justified. Milk condens- 
eries pay slightly higher prices for milk than do 
either cheese factories or creameries, but as the 
producer receives no by-product such as skim-milk, 
buttermilk or whey, he is poorer in the end 
than if he received slightly less for his milk and 
retained such valuable feeds as those mentioned 
for feeding purposes. Experience has shown that 
milk condenseries finally result in run-down farms 
and herds. In fact the sale of the whole milk 
from the farm is almost as ruinous to its fertility 
as the sale of wheat and grains rich in valuable 
mineral elements. The maintenance of fertility 
on the dairy farm will be discussed in another 
chapter. 



CHAPTEK XX 

WHY OLEOMAEGAEINE IS INFEEIOE TO 
BUTTEE 

Competition makes and unmakes businesses. 
The competitor of any business man either forces 
him to put out better goods or to sell on a closer 
margin if he expects to hold his trade. A new 
invention may ruin many business enterprises. 
The telephone has made serious inroads on the 
messenger service business and the phonograph 
has practically put an end to a demand for the 
old style music boxes. So in the dairy business, 
one may ask, " What are the chances for butter 
substitutes ruining the butter markets and lower- 
ing the prices to dairymen ? " 

The answer to this question is simple and final. 
Oleomargarine and the various similar products 
can never replace butter on the market nor will 
they interfere seriously with the demand for 
butter because they are inferior products. True, 
at the present time, our oleomargarine laws are lax 
and inefficient, but the public is now demanding 

164 



DAIRY FARMING 165 

more stringent regulations, which will prevent the 
fraudulent sale of oleomargarine for butter. The 
only way in which the manufacturers and dis- 
tributors of oleo have been able to advance the 
sales of their products is to sell them for butter or 
in such a manner as to make the purchaser believe 
he is receiving butter. Oleomargarine is offered 
for sale under such misleading terms as " fancy 
creamery, Jersey brand " and similar names which 
do not include the term " butter," yet convey that 
meaning to the consumer. In many restaurants, 
oleomargarine is also served instead of butter 
without warning to the diners that they are 
receiving a substitute. 

Relative Value of Butterfat ant> Oleo 

Fats 

Oleomargarine is the official and general name 
for all butter substitutes made of animal fats. 
Butterine, margarine and oleomargarine are the 
same commercial product. They are made by 
combining in various ways animal fats with 
various oils of which cottonseed oil is a typical 
one, and agitating the mixture in milk, cream or 
sometimes soft butter in order to permit the fatty 
mass to take on a butter flavor. Oleomargarine 



166 DAIRY FARMING 

is made of cheap substances and is therefore a 
cheap product. The fats and oils of which 
oleomargarine is composed would be difficult for 
the human stomach to digest in their original 
form and, even in their finished form, their digest- 
ibility is far inferior to that of butter. The fat 
contained in butter is more nourishing, more easily 
digested and more palatable than the fats of which 
oleomargarine is made. Therefore, butteris worth 
more and is a better product than its substitutes, 
just as gold is superior to the various yellow 
metals sold at a low price because they are of less 
value than gold. 

If equal quantities of butter and oleomargarine 
are placed in an oven with a glass front and heat 
is gradually applied, the butter will be observed 
to melt much more quickly than the oleomar- 
garine. The melting point of butter is below 
blood heat. For this reason butter becomes a 
liquid in the stomach and its valuable constituents 
are easily extracted by the digestive juices. On 
the other hand, oleomargarine melts at a tempera- 
ture several degrees higher than that supplied by 
the human body and is a solid in the stomach. 
Its digestibility is therefore obvious and, in Euro- 
pean countries, where careful study has been 



DAIRY FARMING 167 

made of its digestibility, it is barred from use in a 
great many hospitals and institutions for persons 
of feeble health even though the latter are pro- 
vided with their living at the expense of the gov- 
ernment. 

The Intent of Oleomargarine Laws 
Under the present United States laws (1911) 
oleomargarine cannot be colored and sold unless a 
tax of ten cents per pound has been paid to the 
Bureau of Internal Revenue. Uncolored oleomar- 
garine is taxed one-fourth of a cent per pound. 
These taxes are not designed to add to the cost of 
the product and to favor the dairy industry by 
so doing, but rather to protect the public against 
fraud. The ten cent tax was designed to keep 
the yellow color, which is a natural trade-mark of 
butter out of butter substitutes, thus enabling the 
public to readily distinguish between the two. 
The use of yellow coloring matter in oleomar- 
garine is one of the greatest compliments which 
can be paid to butter, as it indicates that, even by 
the payment of the ten cent revenue tax, the 
manufacturer can make a profit from his inferior 
goods, since it is sold on the reputation of butter. 
The tax of one-fourth of a cent per pound on un- 



168 DAIRY FARMING 

colored oleomargarine is simply a means for com- 
pelling the manufacturers of this product to bear 
the expense of the inspection which is necessary 
in order that the public may not be defrauded. 

Butter Market not Seriously Threatened 

by Oleo 
The above taxes are, of course, subject to con- 
stant changes as the means of controlling the 
butter substitute industry by legislation become 
better known. The public does not lean toward 
the purchase of oleomargarine as oleomargarine. 
Although some, particularly the poorer classes, 
know what they are buying when they buy 
oleomargarine, the better class of consumers may 
always be expected to buy butter. When our 
oleomargarine laws have been made sufficiently 
strong to hold that substitute on its own ground, 
oleomargarine will not affect the butter market to 
any greater degree than will such products as 
apple butter, peanut butter, preserves and jellies. 



CHAPTER XXI 

THE CEEAMEKY PROMOTER AND HIS 
TACTICS 

Outside of stock feeds, the dairyman is not 
often imposed upon by commercial quacks or 
separated from his money by dairy get-rich-quick 
schemes. There is one subject, however, which 
every dairyman should understand, namely, the 
manner in which the creamery promoter operates. 
In order to be a financial success, every creamery 
should have available the milk of at least four 
hundred cows, and should be so managed that the 
butter can be made for not over four cents per 
pound as the entire cost of manufacture. This 
cost includes depreciation of the building and 
equipment, salary of butter maker, cost of salt, 
packages and supplies. In very large creameries, 
butter can be manufactured for from one to two 
cents per pound. As these figures are much less 
than the dairyman can afford to make up his own 
butter for, the creamery will be well supported 

169 



170 DAIRY FARMING 

and will pay the farmer very satisfactory prices. 
But how about the section with no creamery ? 

Along comes the professional creamery pro- 
moter into a district where quite a number of 
farmers keep cows. He describes to the dairymen 
the prosperity and the financial success of cream- 
eries in adjoining counties and offers to assist the 
dairymen in establishing a creamery of their own 
as a market for their milk or cream. Many of 
the local farmers have doubtless heard of the 
success of the creameries mentioned by the pro- 
moter and, believing that other statements which 
he makes are also true, they fall in with the 
promoter's plans. 



The Prices are Inflated 

He tells the farmers how much the plant and 
its equipment will cost, and furnishes them with 
information on running and managing the cream- 
ery. The farmers who are unfamiliar with the 
current prices of creamery equipment and the 
actual cost of the necessary building are induced 
to sign notes or otherwise to obligate themselves 
financially. 

The creamery promoter, by the way, is invari- 



DAIRY FARMING 171 

ably a representative of some building- and sup- 
ply-company, and government statistics show that 
the prices charged the farmers are nearly double 
the sum for which the farmers could have, them- 
selves, built and equipped the plant. In addition 
to charging exorbitant prices, the promoter in- 
duces the farmers to put in a great deal of un- 
necessary machinery. The machinery absolutely 
necessary is also very frequently of a larger size 
than the butter-making plant will require for years 
to come. Frequently an attempt is made to find 
out the number of cows in the community from 
which milk may be secured for butter-making pur- 
poses. A very common error in making this cow 
census is to count all of the cows in the herds, 
including those not giving milk and also a great 
many beef animals, which give milk but a very 
short time during the year. 



Why Promoted Creameries Generally 

Fail 

Now for the outcome. The promoter departs 
with notes in his pocket aggregating upward of 
four thousand dollars and leaves the butter-making 
plant in the hands of the dairymen. Under the 



172 DAIRY FARMING 

circumstances the farmers will do exceptionally 
well if they are able to make such a plant finan- 
cially successful. A few such creameries have, 
after several years of skilful management, suc- 
ceeded, but the majority have failed. The chief 
reason, as before suggested, has been the small 
volume of milk received and the consequent ex- 
pensive cost of manufacturing the butter. 

The second reason has been a lack of organiza- 
tion among the patrons of the creamery, and the 
third, a misunderstanding of the best manner in 
which to put their product on the market. After 
a few months, the farmers begin to realize that 
the promises of the promoter for high prices for 
their milk and big dividends by the creamery 
were without foundation, and the dissatisfaction 
which soon follows generally results in the dis- 
solution of the creamery organization and the sale 
of the building and equipment to the highest 
bidder whose offer is very low compared with the 
amount represented by the farmers' notes to the 
promoter. Not only are the chances for a really 
prosperous and well-managed creamery ruined in 
that locality by the tactics of the creamery pro- 
moter, but a damper is placed on dairying and 
the creamery business for miles around. 



DAIRY FARMING 173 

Organizing on the Cooperative Plan 

By far the best and always the safest way in 
which to organize a creamery company for the 
bnilding of a butter-making plant is to begin on a 
cooperative plan. The product of four hundred 
or more cows should be insured for manufacture 
into butter, and marketing facilities should be 
carefully investigated. Information and blue- 
print plans for the cost and construction of the 
building should be secured from the Dairy Divi- 
sion at Washington, D. 0., or from some other 
equally reliable source. 

An expert butter maker will have to be em- 
ployed in order to compete with other creameries 
for quality and market trade. Such a butter- 
maker will demand a salary of eighty dollars or 
more per month, but a good butter maker at one 
hundred dollars is cheaper than a poor one at 
sixty dollars. The losses of butterfat in the 
buttermilk through unskilful handling or the 
low percentage of overrun obtained through mis- 
understanding of the technical points may mount 
to the sum of thousands of dollars in a year. 
Even though an expert butter maker can be ob- 
tained at a satisfactory wage scale, the dairymen 
who supply the creamery with milk or cream will 



174 DAIRY FARMING 

do well to post themselves on the business man- 
agement of the plant, especially in regard to the 
bookkeeping and marketing end. 

Customaey Method of Marketing Butter 
Creameries manufacturing two thousand or 
more pounds of butter weekly find it most profit- 
able to ship their product to reliable commission 
merchants or wholesale buyers in the large market 
centers. The ability of such dealers to sell the 
butter to the best possible advantage more than 
offsets the charges made for the service. 



CHAPTEE XXII 
DAIEY FAEM FEETILITY 

In every branch of farming one must con- 
sider both the visible and the invisible profits. 
The visible profits are easily determined by the 
status of one's bank account and the proceeds from 
the sale of products of the farm. The invisible 
profits are those arising from an increase of fertil- 
ity, from the increased value of the farm due to 
better roads or traction facilities or from the 
building up of a progressive town in the vicinity. 
Visible profits are sometimes the only ones con- 
sidered, but for an accurate determination of the 
real success of the farm, both the invisible and 
the visible profits or loss must be determined. 

Frequently the visible profits offset the invisible 
losses and make the farm appear profitable when, 
in reality, such a conclusion is unjustified. A run- 
down wheat farm may apparently be giving the 
owner a reasonable income, whereas the deprecia- 
tion in the value of the land is greater than the 

175 



176 DAIRY FARMING 

sales of the wheat. A good farmer will always 
recognize such a trend of conditions before they 
have advanced too far and will take steps to 
correct the points in which his farm is deficient. 

Put Back What You Take Away 
The state of Wisconsin was a run-down wheat 
state twenty years ago, and New York soil was 
also run down from cropping heavily with various 
farm and truck crops. Both states have gone into 
dairying extensively yet, at the present time, Wis- 
consin's soil is a great deal more valuable for 
agricultural purposes than that of the Empire 
State. The reason for the difference in these two 
prominent parallel cases is a very interesting 
chapter in dairy farm fertility. The writer 
realizes that general conclusions cannot be drawn 
which will cover every square mile of agricultural 
land in each state, but the chief cause for a lack of 
fertility in New York and for the restoration of 
fertility in Wisconsin has been the kind of dairy- 
ing most common in each of the two states. 
Wisconsin is a great butter and cheese state; 
New York produces in addition to some butter 
and cheese a tremendous amount of milk for the 
large eastern cities and the milk condenseries. 



DAIRY FARMING 177 

Every ton of butter made takes but fifty cents' 
worth of fertility from the farm on which the 
necessary raw material for the butter was pro- 
duced. If, on the other hand, the amount of milk 
required to make the butter had been sold to the 
city trade, about eight dollars' worth of farm 
fertility would have gone with the milk. Now, 
while the sale of milk from a farm does no injury 
to the land provided an equal amount of fertilizing 
matter is restored, the failure of each farmer to 
recognize this important point and to put back 
the fertility causes and has caused large sections of 
country to depreciate in value. 

Barn- Yard Manure Better Than Most 
Chemical Fertilizers 

The by-products which the dairyman receives 
from a creamery or cheese factory in the form of 
buttermilk, skim-milk or whey enables him to raise 
more live stock which, in turn, produce more 
manure. As a ton of manure is worth two dol- 
lars for fertilizing purposes, a large production of 
it on every farm indicates good management and 
large invisible profits. The majority of careful 
experiments made by agricultural scientists in 
testing the relative value of various kinds of fer- 



178 DAIRY FARMING 

tilizers show that barn-yard manure stands very 
close to the top of the list. A few expensive and 
concentrated commercial fertilizers result in greater 
immediate returns, the first year or two after they 
are applied, but the noticeable value of barn-yard 
manure extends over a period of nearly ten years. 
In addition to its fertilizing properties, it has a 
beneficial effect on the texture of the soil, when the 
manure contains straw or litter. In order to pro- 
duce the best results, manure should not be allowed 
to remain uncovered in the barn-yard. If such a 
practice is followed, the rains will leach out a 
large percentage of the soluble mineral fertilizing 
constituents and the action of the sun and winds 
upon the manure pile will cause it to undergo fer- 
mentation and decomposition. The latter results 
in the loss of ammonia and other gases rich in 
nitrogen, a valuable fertilizing element. 

Application of Manure to Fields 
Manure is best handled by being hauled directly 
to the fields after it is produced. When such a 
practice is not convenient, the manure should be 
stored on a cement or liquid-tight floor and should 
be sheltered with a roof which will adequately 
protect it against sun and rain. In order to pre- 



DAIRY FARMING 



179 



vent the loss of volatile gases, such as ammonia, a 
small amount of ground phosphate-rock should be 
added to the manure pile every day. This will fix 
most of the gases produced in a firm chemical 
union and retain them for future use by crops. 

In case skim-milk is fed to farm live stock, the 
dairyman need have no apprehensions that he is 




XVIII. — A Promising Bunch of Calves raised on 
skim-milk from the separator. 

causing his farm to depreciate in value from a loss 
of fertility. Buttermilk and whey have about one- 
half the combined feeding and fertilizing values of 
skim-milk and when these are fed, soil fertility will 



180 DAIRY FARMING 

need attention though there is little danger of the 
soil becoming worn out in case manure is con- 
scientiously used. But if milk is sold to condens- 
eries or to the city trade and no by-product what- 
ever is retained on the farm, radical steps must 
always be taken to restore the fertility of the dairy 
farm before it is so run down that normal crops 
cannot be raised. 

Two Theories of Soil Fertility 
The two theories of soil fertility are, first, that 
every acre of land contains a certain amount of 
mineral plant nutrients and if the amount of these 
is reduced, the crops will suif er. The second theory 
is that the earth is a storehouse of mineral wealth 
which is constantly being distributed by the 
ground waters and that no loss of fertility will 
ever result where there is abundant moisture in the 
soil, but every crop leaves in the soil a mild toxin 
or poison which will reduce the yield of another 
crop of the same kind. For this reason no one 
crop can be grown on the same piece of land year 
after year with equally good results but, if a rota- 
tion of crops is followed so that a crop of corn fol- 
lows a crop of clover and oats follows the corn, 
all of the yields will be good, since the toxins 



DAIKY FARMING 181 

left in the soil do not affect a crop of a different 
kind. 

Practical and experimental evidence indicates 
that both theories are well founded, and with an 
understanding of each, the dairyman who values 
his business or his farm will not allow it to 
depreciate in value. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
DAIRY ACCOUNTS 

If the dairy farm is well chosen with respect to 
markets and to its ability to grow the crops neces- 
sary for feeding, the dairyman should not only 
make a comfortable living but should receive good 
returns on his investment. If the profits of the 
farm are low and unsatisfactory, its owner or man- 
ager should be in a position to definitely locate the 
trouble and apply a remedy. A careful record of 
dairy accounts is therefore of the utmost impor- 
tance for success in dairying. 

No detailed outline for dairy farm bookkeeping 
will be suitable for every need, but the following 
points should be included in the computations, 
whatever system may be adopted. At the begin- 
ning of each year a careful inventory should be 
made. This inventory should include a live stock 
census, young and old animals being listed sepa- 
rately, a record of machinery and supplies on hand, 
and of course the value of feeding material 

182 



DAIRY FARMING 183 

harvested from the fields. In addition to the 
above figures, which can be made very definite, a 
record should be kept of the number of acres in the 
farm devoted each year to the different crops, pas- 
ture and unused land, if any. The inventory 
should also include the value of houses, barns, sheds, 
fences and bridges. The above listed items indicate 
what the dairyman has to work with, and they 
show his investment. 

An Outline of Milk Records 
In order to accurately determine the income 
from the herd, one should procure a well-bound 
book, such as a ledger, for keeping herd records. 
Every animal in the herd should be given a name, 
number or be so designated that any profit or loss 
may be definitely traced to her. At every milking 
her milk should be weighed and the weight recorded 
in the book which has been so ruled that a monthly 
record can easily be kept of her volume of produc- 
tion. Once a month the milk should be tested for its 
percentage of butterfat, and the total production 
of this determined by multiplying the amount of 
milk by its test. The most accurate method of 
testing the milk is to take a composite sample from 
ten or more milkings at different times during the 



184 DAIRY FARMING 

month. The samples are placed in a tightly stop- 
pered bottle which also contains a preservative to 
prevent the milk from curdling. Such preserva- 
tives can be obtained in tablet form from any 
dairy supply house. 

Getting at an Animal's Net Yalue 
Having found the total production of milk and 
butterfat of each cow for a month, the dairyman 
should now compare the results with the amount 
and the cost of feed consumed by each cow. Pas- 
turage, which is of course included in the compu- 
tation, is commonly valued at fifty cents a month 
for each animal. The other feeds should be valued 
according to their cost, if purchased, and accord- 
ing to their market value if raised on the farm. 
The study of production- and feed-records will 
guide the dairyman in the selection of the most 
suitable feeds and in changing the ration of such 
cows as appear to be doing poorly as economical 
producers. 

Obviously at the end of the year, the relative 
merits of every animal will be literally an open 
book and unprofitable cows may be disposed of or 
fattened for beef. 

Together with the milk and butterfat record, a 



DAIRY FARMING 185 

breeding record should also be kept. In the latter 
the dates of breeding and calving are recorded and 
the value of the calf is credited to its mother. By 
adding the commercial value of the calf to the 
value of the milk, the gross income from each cow 
is determined. In this calculation the value of 
manure is overlooked, since manure is more prop- 
erly included in the general farm inventory. Yet 
to be very exact, one may multiply the number of 
loads of manure, hauled to the fields, by two dol- 
lars and divide the product by the number of ani- 
mals which produced the manure. The quotient 
represents the value of the manure from each 
animal. 

Bookkeeping Removes Dairying from the 
Class of Manual Labor 

In a separate part of the ledger an account 
should be kept of wages paid hired help, both 
regular and casual. Other expenses for labor, such 
as amount paid to haulers of milk and cream, 
services of veterinarian or similar expenses are 
most conveniently kept in this department of the 
accounts. 

Still another portion of the account book should 
be devoted to the gross income, including returns 



186 DAIRY FARMING 

from products and by-products sold, sales of live 
stock, feeds or compensation for services rendered 
to others. 

Another list of importance includes general ex- 
penses, such as repairs, improvements and miscel- 
laneous purchases. Now by uniting all of the 
credit and the debit items, the net income is readily 
determined and by noting its relation to the last 
annual inventory the dividend on the investment 
is ascertained. Without an accurate system of 
accounting, the satisfaction of conducting a dairy 
or any branch of farming quickly disappears and 
farming is reduced to mere manual work accom- 
panied by the hope that everything will turn out 
all right financially. 



Locating a Profitable Side-line 
Bookkeeping shows whether the work is being 
conducted along the best lines. Quite frequently 
a side-line of the dairy proves nearly as remuner- 
ative as the main branch, thus indicating that the 
side-line can be profitably developed and perhaps 
made to be the main source of income. Owing to 
its complexity, farming offers excellent opportuni- 
ties for wise and careful managers who are willing 



DAIRY FARMING 187 

to study the business end. By mastering details 
and stopping leaks and petty losses, good man- 
agers have made small farms more profitable than 
vast ranches carelessly managed. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
DAIEYING FOR HEALTH AND WEALTH 

About the first step toward the improvement 
of a business man's health after he has impaired 
his vigor seeking a financial fortune in the city is 
to establish a country home and to engage in some 
form of dairying, generally the production of a 
high grade of milk. These men of business habits 
see in dairying not only an excellent opportunity 
for supplying pure milk, so sadly needed in large 
cities, but a profitable business enterprise as well. 
Few sights are so beautiful and typically rural as 
a herd of cows on pasture, and few enterprises 
combine opportunities for health and wealth as 
satisfactorily as dairying. 

In certain parts of the East, milk farms have 
been established as health resorts and the persons 
sent to these farms are required by their physi- 
cians to drink large quantities of milk and butter- 
milk. Few beverages contain the mild acidity, so 
beneficial to the human stomach, that is found in 
buttermilk. That age brings a quick deterioration 

188 " 



DAIRY FARMING 189 

of market milk has long been established and, for 
this reason, persons who expect to derive the 
greatest benefits from a milk diet should consume 
the milk as quickly as it can be cooled when fresh 
from the cow. In many other respects the quiet 
atmosphere of the dairy barn with its soft-eyed 
occupants is one of the best restoratives for a 
broken-down nervous system. These may be some 
of the reasons why dairying is so popular with 
persons who have succeeded in business life in 
cities and seek agriculture as a pleasurable and 
commercial supplement to their regular business. 

The production of milk on farms is not a com- 
petitive business and there is room for all. 
Mother Nature is a silent partner in the business 
and by studying her methods and laws, your 
partnership with her will be successful. 



CHAPTER XXV 

DAIRYGRAMS, PROVERBS OF UNLIMITED 
APPLICATION 

Honesty begets confidence and confidence be- 
gets business. 

The dairyman who maintains sanitary premises 
at all times need not dread the visit of the in- 
spector. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no dairyman. The 
highest development of the dairy industry will be 
accompanied by the highest development of the 
law. 

Gentleness shown the dairy cow pays large 
dividends in the form of liberal milk production, 
more valuable and more salable animals and more 
congenial work in the dairy. 

However good are his intentions, a dairyman is 
judged by the quality of his products. Dairy 
products are never any better than the material 
from which they are made. 

190 



DAIRY FARMING 191 

A dairyman who suspects the presence of tu- 
berculosis in his herd and refrains from having 
his animals tested for fear of possible financial 
loss is as dangerous to civilization as a criminal. 

Organization is the best tool by which dairy- 
men may fight against discriminatory competi- 
tion ; education is the best means for overcoming 
ignorance and unfounded prejudice. 

As long as the human stomach craves for food, 
milk and its products will be in constant demand. 
Owing to its perishable nature, the milk market 
can never be cornered by a few. Dairying will 
always be a favorite line of farming for men of 
limited means. 

The corner-stone in the foundation on which 
pure milk supplies are established is cleanliness. 
Cleanliness in dairying demands the elimination 
of invisible contamination as well as visible dirt. 
Success in dairying means success in a struggle 
against contamination. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

SOME COMMON DAIRY TERMS 

Throughout dairy publications and literature 
of technical nature, various terms and words are 
used which are found neither in ordinary litera- 
ture nor in a great many of the best dictionaries, 
in the sense in which the terms are used in the 
dairy industry. In order to give the reader of a 
non-technical book of this nature an insight into 
the meaning of terms which he will be likely to 
encounter, the following list has been prepared : 

Terms Applied to Cattle 

Pure-bred. — An animal whose parents were both 
typical representatives of a well-recognized breed ; 
full-blooded. The term " thorough-bred " is ap- 
plied chiefly to horses and dogs, never to cattle. 

Grade. — An animal, one of whose parents, usu- 
ally the male, was a pure-bred and the other of no 
well-defined breed. The term " grade " is often 
used as an adjective preceding the name of a 
breed, for example " grade Jersey." If a grade- 

192 



DAIRY FARMING 193 

Jersey cow is mated with a pure-bred Jersey bull, 
the calf will be of a higher grade than the cow 
and if the breeding process is continued several 
generations, a high grade Jersey herd may be de- 
veloped. When the calves are fifteen-sixteenths 
full-blooded, the next generation may be called 
pure-bred. 

Cross-bred. — The result of mating a pure-bred 
animal of one breed with a pure-bred animal of 
another breed. 

Scrub or nondescript. — An animal neither of 
whose parents was a pure-bred. 

Terms Applied to Butter 
Adulterated. — Butter which contains sixteen or 
more per cent, of moisture ; butter which contains 
any preservative other than common salt ; butter 
which does not conform with the legal require- 
ments of a particular state. It is obvious that 
butter may be classed as adulterated in one part of 
the country and be legal in another section under 
a different code of laws. 

Country. — The term applied to butter made on 
farms in contrast to that made in creameries. 
Creamery. — A term applied to butter made 



194 DAIRY FARMING 

from the product of more than one herd and gen- 
erally in an especially equipped factory, the ma- 
chinery of which is operated by power as con- 
trasted with machinery operated by hand. 

Dairy. — The term applied to butter made in a 
farm dairy, dairy butter being generally superior 
to country butter, since a dairy is understood to 
be a place where adequate means and suitable 
machinery are at hand for the manufacture of 
butter. Dairy butter is also defined as butter 
made from the product of a single herd of cows. 

Extra. — A market term signifying the highest 
grade of butter in the West and central West and 
the second highest grade in the East. Special is 
the term used for the highest grade of butter in 
the East. 

Greasy. — The condition of butter caused by 
churning at too high a temperature or by over- 
working ; a soft and salvy condition. 

Mottled. — An ununiform appearance of butter 
caused by the uneven distribution of salt which 
makes some parts of the butter appear lighter in 
color than other parts. 

Print. — An oblong block of butter weighing a 
definite amount, generally a pound, though some- 



DAIRY FARMING 195 

times two pounds. The print derives its name 
from the fact that the name of the manufacturer 
or distributor is either impressed in the butter or is 
printed on the wrapper. 

Renovated. — Butter which has been subjected 
to melting and treatment with a blast of air and 
other purifying means calculated to remove ran- 
cidity and objectionable odors. Renovated butter 
is generally made from a poor grade of country 
butter. 

Square. — A term applied on the Pacific Coast 
to a package of butter weighing about two 
pounds. 

Sweet-cream. — Butter churned from cream 
which has not been allowed to ripen or become 
sour. Such butter has a rather flat flavor, but is 
in demand by certain classes of trade. 

Tub. — A term applied to butter which is sent to 
the market in wooden tubs, generally holding 
about sixty pounds. 

Uncolored. — Butter to which no artificial color- 
ing matter has been added. Uncolored butter, 
while rather yellow during the months of May and 
June, is almost white during the winter months 



196 DAIRY FARMING 

when cream is very slightly colored by the natural 
color of the butterfat. 

Unsalted. — Butter to which no salt has been 
added. Applied in a more general way, unsalted 
butter is butter which contains a very slight per- 
centage of salt. 

Terms Applied to Milk 
Adulterated. — A term applied to milk which is 
below the legal standard of milk solids or fat or 
which has been illegally skimmed, preserved or 
treated. 

Blue Milk. — A term used to describe the bluish 
appearance of skim-milk. The bluish tint is pro- 
duced by the action of a color-forming species of 
bacteria. 

Buttermilk. — The product which is formed when 
butter is churned. Buttermilk, when fresh, is 
mildly acid, is of a yellowish- white color and is a 
favorite hot weather beverage. 

Certified. — Milk whose purity and the sanitation 
accompanying its production has been officially 
certified to by a reputable board of citizens, doc- 
tors or milk experts. 



DAIRY FARMING 197 

Cheese-milk. — Milk which is intended for manu- 
facture into cheese. 

Clarified. — Milk which has been passed through 
a centrifugal separator or otherwise been sub- 
jected to sufficient centrifugal force to remove 
impurities suspended in the milk. 

Condensed. — A form of milk produced by the 
removal of about two-thirds of the water con- 
stituting normal milk. Condensed milk is usually 
sterile and is placed on the market in tin cans. It 
may or may not contain sugar. 

Dipped. — Milk which is delivered to the con- 
sumer by being dipped out of cans or large 
receptacles and transferred to the consumer's 
vessel. " Dipped milk " is a term commonly used 
in contrast to bottled milk. 

Dried. — Milk which has been reduced to a dry 
powder by the evaporation of the moisture and 
drying. 

Homogenized. — Milk which has been subjected 
to a treatment which breaks up and emulsifies the 
fat globules so that they will not rise. This treat- 
ment is intended to make thin milk appear rich 
but has certain commercial merits otherwise. 

Malted. — A term applied to a preparation made 



198 DAIRY FARMING 

by combining the solids of cow's milk with the 
malt of grains. It is offered for sale in powdered 
or tablet form but is generally dissolved in water 
and consumed as a liquid. Frequently the tablets, 
however, are eaten directly. 

Modified. — Milk whose constituents have been 
changed by proper blending' or addition of other 
food substances to closely resemble in composition 
mother's milk. Modified milk is used chiefly for 
infant feeding. 

Pasteurized. — Milk which has been subjected to 
sufficient heat to destroy most of the bacterial life 
contained without coagulating the casein or albu- 
min of the milk. Pasteurizing temperatures com- 
monly range from 140 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit. 

Standardized. — A term indicating that milk has 
been blended with a richer milk in order to make 
it conform to a definite standard. For example, 
some Holstein milk is below the legal standard of 
certain cities in its butterfat content, but, if it is 
mixed with a small amount of cream or milk hav- 
ing more than the legal butterfat content, it can 
be legally sold. The mixing process is called 
standardization, and the milk mixed is referred to 
as standardized milk. 



DAIRY FARMING 199 

Starter Milk.— Milk used for the purpose of 
making a starter for butter making. 

Sterilized. — Milk which has been scalded suffi- 
ciently to kill all bacterial life. 

Tuberculin-tested.— A term applied to milk from 
a herd all of whose animals have successfully 
passed the tuberculin test. The milk itself has 
not been tested for the germs of tuberculosis and 
the term is, therefore, rather inaccurate, though 
commonly used. 

Whole.— Milk from which no constituent has 
been taken or anything added ; normal milk just 
as drawn from the cow. 

Terms Used in Testing Milk and Its 
Products 

Cow-testing. — The practice of determining by a 
series of accurate tests the profitable and the un- 
profitable cows in a dairy herd. 

Cream Bottle. — A graduated bottle made of 
strong glass which is used for testing the amount 
of butterfat in cream. 

Cubic Centimeter. — The unit of volume in the 
metric system which has been adopted as the 
standard for dairy testing. A linear centimeter 



200 DAIRY FARMING 

is equivalent to 2.54 inches and the cubic centi- 
meter is about one-sixteenth of a cubic inch. 

Gram. — The unit of weight in the metric sys- 
tem. A gram is the weight of one cubic centi- 
meter of distilled water at its maximum density. 

Lactometer. — An instrument used for determin- 
ing the specific gravity of milk. It consists of a 
bulb or float to the lower portion of which is at- 
tached a weight so that the lactometer will float 
upright in the milk. A scale on the neck of the 
instrument indicates the specific gravity directly. 

Milk Sampler. — A small cup at the lower end 
of a long rod, used in taking an average sample 
from about the center of a large volume of milk. 

Pipette. — A. small glass tube with an enlarge- 
ment near the center calculated to hold a definite 
amount of milk or other liquid. The lower end 
of the pipette is placed in the liquid and by apply- 
ing suction at the upper end, the pipette may be 
filled to a definite mark just above the bulb. 

Test. — A term applied to the percentage of but- 
terfat in milk or its products. Adjectives such as 
light, dark and cloudy are used in connection with 
the word " test " to express the color of the butterfat 
column, the length of which determines the test. 



DAIRY FARMING 201 

Tester. — The centrifugal machine used in whirl- 
ing the test bottles in making the test. 

Teems Used in the Manufactuee of Daiky 

Peoducts 

Carton. — The pasteboard package in which 
print butter is frequently put up for the retail trade. 

Cheese Salt. — A very pure and easily soluble 
grade of salt used to salt cheese. The term " but- 
ter salt " is also sometimes used to define salt used 
in the manufacture of butter. 

Color. — A harmless vegetable compound used 
to give butter and cheese a yellow color. 

Curd. — The curdled or coagulated portion of 
milk which forms the basis of cheese. 

Curd Mill. — A machine used for grinding curd 
for manufacture into cheese. 

Curing Room. — A room kept at rather a low 
temperature in which cheese is held for several 
months in order that it may cure or ripen before 
going to the market. 

Filler. — A substance such as gelatine, gum 
arabic or corn-starch used for the purpose of giv^ 
ing stiffness or body to ice-cream. Some fillers 



202 DAIRY FARMING 

contain material calculated to give low grades of 
ice-cream the appearance of richness. 

Overrun. — The difference between the amount 
of butter taken from the churn and the amount of 
butterfat from which the butter was made. As 
butter normally contains from ten to fifteen per 
cent, moisture, about three per cent, of salt and a 
considerable amount of casein and mineral matter, 
the amount of butter made exceeds the weight of 
the butterfat by from sixteen to twenty-two per 
cent, of the latter's weight. Overchurn is a term 
equivalent to overrun, but not in such frequent use. 

Overworking. — The process injurious to the 
texture of butter which consists of working the 
butter too long a time. 

Paraffining. — The application of a thin coating 
of paraffin to the inside of butter tubs or to the 
outside of cheese. Paraffining prevents the evap- 
oration of moisture from dairy products. 

Ripening. — The operation of souring milk or 
cream under the control of the butter maker ; also 
a term used to describe the curing process in 
cheese. 

Setting. — The first operation in preparing milk 



DAIRY FARMING 203 

for cheese making ; for example, setting a vat of 
milk. 

Weighing In. — The operation of receiving, 
weighing and keeping an account of the milk or 
cream received at a factory. 

Yield. — The amount of cheese made from one 
hundred pounds of milk. The term " yield " is 
sometimes erroneously used for " overrun." 



THE END 



Ind 



ex 



Abuse of pasteurization, 104 

Accounts, dairy, 182 

Advantages of dairy school as- 
sistance, 153 

Age of cow important, 34 

Animal diseases, information 
on, 155 

Application of manure to fields, 
178 

Avoid cheap farm, 15 

Ayrshires, characteristics of, 
28-29 

Babcock test, operation of the, 

Bacteria in milk, 99 
tests for, 96 
Balanced ration, the, 80 
Barn-yard manure, its value, 177 
Barrel churn, superiority of, 127 
Basement barn objectionable, 

42-43 
Bookkeeping, its importance, 

185 

Bottled milk, the science of, ill 
Box stalls, 50 

Breeds, origin and character- 
istics, 22 
which are best ? 20 
Buildings, separate, 51 
Bull pen, the, 51 
Bulls, management of, 87 
Business ability is essential, 13 



Butter market not seriously 

threatened by oleo, 168 
Butter markets, the three great, 

159 
Butter, terms applied to, 193 
Buttermilk, 188 

Caps for bottles, different types 

of, 113 
Care of the cream, 123 
Careful investment, 15 
Casein test, 93 

Cattle feed is expensive fuel, 84 
Ceiling, the cow barn, 46 
Cement floor, 45 
Certified milk and its produc- 
tion, 107 
Characteristics of milk, 29 

of animals, 30 
Cheapest and best foods, 84 
Cheese factory, 17 

factories as markets, 161 
making, is it practical 
for the farmer ? 133 
Chemical fertilizers, 177 

preservatives, 105 
Churning temperatures, 126 

the principle of, 128 
Color of animal, 39 
Common faults of cottage 

cheese, 135 
Comparison of various grades 
of milk, 1 10 

204 



INDEX 



205 



Concrete or wood structures, 44 
Condensery, the danger of, 163 
Considerations of minor im- 
portance, 39 
Contents, 3, 4 
Cooperation plan, organization 

of, 173 , , 

Cottage cheese, common faults 

of > x 35 
Cow barn, ceiling of, 46 

Cream, care of, 123 

Creamery, 17 

Creamery promoter and his tac- 
tics, the, 169 

Cross breeding, principle of, 32 

Customary method of market- 
ing butter, 174 

Dairy accounts, 182 

butter, how to make the 

best, 119 
farm fertility, 175 
markets, why they fluctu- 
ate, 157 
meetings, value of, 150 
organizations, 149 
publications, 154 
school assistance, advan- 
tages of, 153 
terms, 192 
Dairying, 7 

for health and wealth, 
188 
Dairygrams, 190 
Danger of the condensery, 163 
Different types of caps, 113 
Disposition of the animal, 38 
Diversion for the hired men, 

60 
Doors and windows, 48 



Dust problem solved, 10 1 
Duties of State Dairy Depart- 
ment, 152 

Educational and commercial 
value of dairy meetings, 150 
Employer's obligations, 62 
English cream cheese, 136 
Errors not due to fault of test 

for tuberculosis, 145 
Establishing a high class trade, 

13 1 

Factors which increase the 
value of dairy ani- 
mals, 40 
which reduce the 
value of dairy ani- 
mals, 41 
Fat content of milk not affected 

by feed, 86 
Feed for calves, 83 
Feeding and managing the 

herd, 78 
Fertility of dairy farm, how pre- 
served, 175 
two theories of soil, 180 
Fertilizers, 177 

Few essential principles, a, 121 
Forcing cows to make records, 

35 
Fraud of one-mmute churns, 90 

French cream cheese, 136 

Getting at the animal's net 

value, 184 
Glass jar and the single service 

package, 1 12 
Good milker, physical points 

of a, 37 



206 



INDEX 



Grass and hay, 1 6 
Guernsey cow, the character- 
istics of, 24 

Hand separators, 10 

Hart casein test, 93 

Health of animal, 31 

Healthy calves from diseased 

cows, 147 
Heat and cold as dairy agents, 

100 
Help problem, solution of the, 

58 
Helps for dairymen, 151 
High-class trade, 131 
Hindrances to successful milk- 
ing, 67 
Hired help, 18 
Holsteins, 25 

characteristics of, 26 
Housing and equipment, 42 
How and why the dairy market 
fluctuates, 157 
to choose a dairy cow, 31 
to disinfect dairy prem- 
ises, 146 
to make the best dairy 

butter, 1 19 
to select a dairy farm, 15 

Importance of both scientific 

and practical knowledge, 14 
Information for dairymen, 151 
Information on animal diseases, 

Inspector's visits, 108 
Is farm cheese making prac- 
tical, 133 



Jersey cow, characteristics of, 23 

Light, 48 

Locating a profitable side-line, 
186 

Making the starter, 125 
Management of bulls, 87 
Manure, application to fields, 

178 
Market milk prices, 158 
Markets are constant, 9 
distance to, 16 
Marketing butter, usual meth- 
ods, 174 
Milk, characteristics of, 29 

inspection and its pur- 
pose, 116 
records, an outline of, 183 
sanitation and care of, 98 
sediment test, 94 
strainer, the, 10 1 
terms applied to, 196 
Milking machines — their prac- 
ticability, 68 
— their proper manage- 
ment, 70 
— their mechanism, 71 
— difficulty of cleaning, 

74 
— their saving of labor 

doubtful, 76 
cost of, 77 
Milking, points on, 65 

rapidity of, 66 
Minor considerations, 39 
Moisture in butter, 93 
Mortgaged farms, 16 



Jersey cow, the, 22 



National Dairy Show, 155 



INDEX 



207 



Natural feeds, 83 
Net value of animals, 184 
Nutritive ratio of feeds, 85 
table of, 86 

Objections to pasteurized milk, 
104 

Obligations of employer, 62 
of employee, 63 

Oleo no serious menace to but- 
ter market, 168 

Oleomargarine laws, the intent 
of, 167 
why inferior to 
butter, 164 

One-minute churn, 90 

Opening era of better dairy 
butter, 120 

Operation of the Babcock test, 9 1 

Organs and tissues commonly 
affected by tuberculosis, 144 

Organizations, dairy, 149 

Organizing on the cooperative 
plan, 173 

Outline of milk records, 183 

Package as an index of its 

contents, the, 115 
Palatable winter feeds, 82 
Pasteurization and sterilization, 

102 
Pasture and corn, 16 
Physical points of a good 

milker, 77 
Points on milking, 65 
Prices are inflated, 170 

range of, 39 
Principle of churning, the, 128 
of cross-breeding, the, 
32 



Process of ripening the cream, 
124 
of working the butter, 
130 
Productiveness, 35 
Proprietary preparations, 83 
Proverbs, 190 

Pure-bred stock always in de- 
mand, 33 
Pure water, 79 

Purpose of milk inspection, 116 
Put back what you take away 
from the land, 176 

Quarters for young calves, 50 

Range of prices, 39 

Rapid milking important, 66 

Relative value of butter fat and 

oleo fat, 165 
Rights of producers, inspectors, 

and consumers, 117 
Ripening process, the, 124 
Roughage, 81 

Salting and washing butter, 

129 
Sanitation and care of milk, 98 
Science of bottled milk, ill 
Seasonal rations, variety of, 81 
Selection of a dairy farm, 15 
Separate buildings for special 

operations, 51 
Separation of milk by centrif- 
ugal force, 122 
Separator, hand, 10 
Services extended by dairy 

publications, 154 
Silos and silage, 53 
capacity of, 55 
construction of, 56 



208 



INDEX 



Silos, foundation of, 57 
Situation in the West, 160 
Size of dairy farm, 18 
Social life of the community, 19 
Solving the dust problem, 10 1 
the help problem, 58 
Some common dairy terms, 192 
Stalls and stanchions, 50 
Sterilization, 102 
Straining milk, 10 1 
Stripping, 67 

Study the animal's disposition, 38 
Success in dairying, 12 
Succulent feeds and pure water, 

79 
Summer and winter standards, 

109 
Sunlight as a germicide, 48 
Superiority of the barrel churn, 

127 

Temperatures for churning, 

126 
Terms applied to butter, 193 
to cattle, 192 
to milk, 196 
used in the manufacture 
of dairy products, 201 
used in testing milk and 
its products, 199 
Test, the Hart casein, 93 

milk sediment, 94 
Tests for bacteria, 96 
Testing milk for richness and 

purity, 89 
Tests for solids in milk, 92 
Three great butter markets, 159 
Title, validity of, 19 
Truth about the tuberculosis 
test, the, 138 



Tuberculosis, 31 

Two theories of soil fertility, 180 

Validity of title, 19 

Value of heat and cold as dairy 
agents, 100 

Value service available from 
Federal Government, 151 

Varieties of cheese adapted for 
manufacture on farm, 134 

Variety of seasonal rations, 81 

Various grades of milk com- 
pared, 1 10 

Ventilation, 49 

Visits of inspectors are not an- 
nounced, 108 

Wages, 59 

Wagon roads, 16 

Washing and salting the butter, 
129 

Water — quality and quantity, 16 

Watering, 49 

When cement floor is permis- 
sible, 45 

When not to test for tubercu- 
losis, 142 

Why promoted creameries gen- 
erally fail, 171 

Windows and doors, size of, 48 

Winter feeds, palatable, 82 

Wood or concrete structures ? 

44 
Work and wages, 59 
Working butter, the process of, 

130 

Young blood is best for foun- 
dation stock, 34 
Young calves, quarters for, 50 



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and verse not generally found in similar collections. €[ One 
important feature of the book is found in the characteristic'/ 
lines from well known authors, in which the familiar sayings 
tre credited to their original sources. 



EPITAPHS Even death has its humorous side. 

By Frederic W, linger fl There are said to be " sermons in 
stones," but when they are tombstones 
there is many a smile mixed with the moral. €J Usually 
churchyard humor is all the more delightful because it is 
unconscious, but there are times when it is intentional and 
none the less amusing. ^ Of epitaphs, old and new, this 
book contains the best. It is full of quaint bits of obituary 
fancy, with a touch of the gruesome here and there for a 
relish. 

PI^OVE^BS The genius, wit, and spirit of a nation 

By John H. Bechtel are discovered in its proverbs, and the 
condensed wisdom of all ages and all 
nations is embodied in them. €J A good proverb that fits 
the case is often a convincing argument, tfl This volume 
contains a representative collection of proverbs, old and new, 
and the indexes, topical and alphabetical, enable one to find 
readily just what he requires. 

THINGS WORTH Can you name the coldest place in 

KNOWING the United States or tell what year 

By John H. Bechtel had 445 days ? Do you know 

how soon the coal fields of the 
world are likely to be exhausted, or how the speed of a 
moving train may be told ? What should you do first if 
you got a cinder in your eye, or your neighbor's baby swal- 
lowed a pin ? This unique, up-to-date book answers thou- 
sands of just such interesting and useful questions. 

3 



A DICTIONARY OF Most of us dislike to look up a 

MYTHOLOGY mythological subject because 

By John H. Bechtel of tne nme required. <& This 

book remedies that difficulty 
because in it can be found at a glance just what is wanted. 
€J It is comprehensive, convenient, condensed, and the infor- 
mation is presented in such an interesting manner that when 
once read it will always be remembered. 1$ A distinctive 
feature of the book is the pronunciation of the proper names, 
something found in few other works. 

SLIPS OF SPEECH Who does not make them? 
By John H. Bechtel The best of us do. 1$ Why not 

avoid them ? Any one inspired 
with the spirit of self-improvement may readily do so. ^ No 
necessity for studying rules of grammar or rhetoric when this 
book may be had. It teaches both without the study of 
either. Q It is a counsellor, a critic, a companion, and a 
guide, and is written in a most entertaining and chatty style. 

HANDBOOK OF What is more disagreeable 

PRONUNCIATION tnan a faulty pronunciation? 

By John H. Bechtel No other defect so clearly 

shows a lack or culture. f]| l his 
book contains over 5,000 words on which most of us are 
apt to trip, ^ They are here pronounced in the clearest and 
simplest manner, and according to the best authority ^ It 
is more readily consulted than a dictionary, and is just as 
reliable. 

4 



PRACTICAL A new word is a new tool. 1$ This 

SYNONYMS DO °k will not only enlarge your vocabu- 

By John H. Bcchtel W. but wiU snow y° u n ow to express 
the exact shade of meaning you have 
in mind, and will cultivate a more precise habit of thought 
and speech. ^ It will be found invaluable to busy journalises, 
merchants, lawyers, or clergymen, and as an aid to teachers 
no less than to the boys and girls under their care. 



READY MADE SPEECHES Pretty much everybody 
By George Hapgood, Esq. in these latter days, is 

now and again called 
upon "to say a few words in public." ^ Unfortunately, 
however, but few of us are gifted with the power of ready 
and graceful speech. €} This is a book of carefully planned 
model speeches to aid those who, without some slight help, 
must remain silent. <| There is a preliminary chapter of gen- 
eral advice to speakers. 

AFTEi^-DlNNER The dinner itself may be ever so 
STORIES good, and yet prove a failure if there 

By John Harrison is no mirth to enliveT1 the company. 

fl Nothing adds so much zest to an 

occasion of this kind as a good story well told. ^ Here are 

hundreds of the latest, best, brightest, and most catchy stories, 

all of them short and pithy, and so easy to remember that 

anyone can tell them successfully. ^J There are also * 

number of selected toasts suitable to all occasions. 

5 



TOASTS Most men dread being called upon to 

By William Pittenger respond to a toast or to make an ad« 
dress. ^ What would you not give for 
the ability to be rid of this embarrassment ? No need to 
give much when you can learn the art from this little book. 
C| It will tell you how to do it ; not only that, but by ex- 
ample it will show the way. 1$ It is valuable not alone to 
the novice, but to the experienced speaker, who will gather 
from it many suggestions. 

THE DEBATER'S There is no greater ability than 

TREASURY tne power of skillful and forcible 

By William Pittenger debate, and no accomplishment 

more readily acquired if the person 
is properly directed. €| In this little volume are directions for 
organizing and conducting debating societies and practical 
suggestions for all who desire to discuss questions in public. 
€J There is also a list of over 200 questions for debate, with 
arguments both affirmative and negative. 

PUNCTUATION Few persons can punctuate properly ; 
By Paul Allardyce to avoid mistakes many do not punctu- 

ate at all. ^ A perusal of this book 
will remove all difficulties and make all points clear. €J The 
rules are plainly stated and freely illustrated, dius furnishing 
a most useful volume, ^ The author is everywhere recog- 
nized as the leading authority upon the subject, and what 
he has to say is practical, concise, and comprehensive. 

6 



ORATORY Few men ever enjoyed a wider ex- 

By Henry Ward Beecher perience or achieved a higher repu- 
tation in public speaking than Mr. 
Beecher. fl What he had to say on this subject was bom 
of experience, and his own inimitable style was at once both 
statement and illustration of his theme. Cfl This volume is a 
unique and masterly treatise on the fundamental principles of 
true oratory. 

CONVERSATION Some people are accused of talking 
By J. P. Mahaffy too much. But no one is ever 

taken to task for talking too well. 
€]f Of all the accomplishments of modern society, that of 
being an agreeable conversationalist holds first place. 
Nothing is more delightful or valuable. f$ To suggest what 
to say, just how and when to say it, is the general aim of 
this work, and it succeeds most admirably in its purpose. 

READING The ability to read aloud well, 

AS A FINE Ar^T whether at the fireside or on the 

By Ernest Legouve public platform, is a fine art. 

€J The directions and suggestions 
contained in this work of standard authority will go far 
toward the attainment of this charming accomplishment. 
tfl The work is especially recommended to teachers and 
others interest ed in the instruction of public school pupte. 

7 



SOCIALISM Socialism is "in the air." C[ References 

By Charles H. Olin to the subject are constantly appearing 
in newspapers, magazines, and other 
publications. CJ But few persons except the socialists them- 
selves have more than a dim comprehension of what it really 
means. ^ This book gives in a clear and interesting manner 
a complete idea of the economic doctrines taught by the best 
socialists. 

JOURNALISM What is news, how is it obtained, how 
By Charles H. Olin handled, and how can one become a 
Journalist? €J These questions are all 
answered in this book, and detailed instructions are given for 
obtaining a position and writing up all kinds of "assign- 
ments." €J It shows what to avoid and what to cultivate, 
and contains chapters on book reviewing, dramatic criticism 
and proofreading. 

VENTRILOQUISM Although always a delightful form 
By Charles H. Olin of entertainment, Ventriloquism is 

to most of us more or less of a 
mystery 1$ It need be so no longer. €| This book exposes 
the secrets of the art completely, and shows how almost 
anyone may learn to " throw the voice " both near and far. 
^ Directions for the construction of automatons are given 
as well as good dialogue for their successful operation. 
IJ Fully illustrated. 

8 



CONUNDRUMS Conundrums sharpen our wits and 
By Dean Rivers lead us to think quickly. €J They are 

also a source of infinite amusement 
and pleasure, whiling away tedious hours and putting every- 
one in good humor. ^ This book contains an excellent col- 
lection of over a thousand of the latest, brightest, and most 
up-to-date conundrums, to which are added many Biblical, 
poetical, and French conundrums. 

MAGIC There is no more delightful form of enter- 

By Ellis Stanyon tainment than that afforded by the per- 
formances of a magician. ^ Mysterious as 
these performances appear, they may be very readily learned 
if carefully explained. €[ This book embraces full and 
detailed descriptions of all the well known tricks with coins, 
handkerchiefs, hats, flowers, and cards, together with a 
number of novelties not previously produced or explained. 
<I Fully illustrated. 

HYPNOTISM There is no more popular or 

By Edward H. Eldridge, A. M. interesting form of entertain- 
ment than hypnotic exhibitions, 
and everyone would like to know how to hypnotize. €[ By 
following the simple and concise instructions contained in this 
complete manual anyone may, with a little practice, readily 
learn how to exercise this unique and strange power. 

9 



WHIST "According to Cavendish" is now 

By Cavendish almost as familiar an expression as 

Twenty-third Edition " according to Hoyle." *i No whist 
player, whether a novice or an expert, 
can afford to be without the aid and support of Cavendish. 
No household in which the game is played is complete 
without a copy of this book. €J This edition contains all of 
the matter found in the English publication and at one-fourth 
the cost. 



PARLOR GAMES "What shall we do to amuse our- 
By Helen E. Hollister selves and our friends?" is a ques- 

tion frequently propounded on rainy 
days and long winter evenings. IJ This volume most happily 
answers this question, as it contains a splendid collection of 
all kinds of games for amusement, entertainment, and instruc- 
tion. IJ The games are adapted to both old and young, and 
all classes will find them both profitable and interesting. 



ASTRONOMY : Can you tell what causes 

The Sun and His Family day and night, seasons 

By Julia MacNair Wright an ^ years, tides and 

eclipses? Why is the 
sky blue and Mars red ? What are meteors and shooting 
stars ? IJ These and a thousand other questions are answered 
in a most fascinating way in this highly interesting volume. 
Few books contain as much valuable material so pleasantly 
packed in so small a space. ^ Illustrated. 

10 



BOTANY : The scientific study ol 

The Story of Plant Life Botany made as intereft- 

By Julia MacNair Wright m S as a fairy tale. €J It is 

better reading than such 
tales, because of the profit. <$ Each chapter is devoted to 
the month of the year in which plants of that month are in 
evidence. Not only is the subjecft treated with accuracy, 
but there is given much practical information as to the care 
and treatment of plants and flowers. CJ Illustrated. 

rLOWEI\S: Every woman loves flowers, 

How to GrOW Them Dut f ew succeed in growing 

By Eben E. Rexford them. With the help so 

clearly given in this book no 
one need fail. 1$ It treats mainly of indoor flowers and plants 
those for window gardening ; all about their selection, care, 
soil, air, light, warmth, etc. C[ The chapter on table decora- 
tion alone is worth the price of the book. €J While the sub- 
ject of flowers is quite thoroughly covered, the slyle used is 
plain, simple, and free from all technicalities. 

DANCING A complete inslrucftor, beginning with 

By Marguerite Wilson the firs! positions and sleps and leading 
up to the square and round dances. 
*I It contains a full lift of calls for all of the square dances, 
and the appropriate music for each figure, the etiquette of 
the dances, and 1 00 figures for the german. €J It is unusu- 
ally well illustrated by a large number of original drawings. 
^ Without do««bt the be& book on the subjed. 

IX 



ASTROLOGY If you wish to obtain a horoscope of 
By M. M. Macgregor your entire life, or if you would like to 
know in what business or profession you 
will best succeed, what friends you should make, whom you 
should marry, the kind of a person to choose for a business 
partner, or the time of the month in which to begin an 
enterprise, you will find these and hundreds of other vital 
questions solved in this book by the science of Astrology. 

PHYSIOGNOMY How can we judge whether a man 
By Leila Lomax may be trusted to handle money for 

us? €][ How can a woman analyze 
a man who would marry her ? ^ Partly by words, partly 
by voice, partly by reputation, but more than all by looks — 
the shape of the head, the set of the jaw, the line of the 
mouth, the glance of the eye. ^ Physiognomy as explained 
in this book shows clearly how to read character with every 
point explained by illustrations and photographs. 

GRAPHOLOGY : Do you know that every 

How to Read Character time you write five or 
from Handwriting six lines y° u furnish a 

By Clifford Howard complete record of your 

character? Anyone who 
understands Graphology can tell by simply examining your 
handwriting just what sort of a person you are. ^ There is 
no method of character reading that is more interesting, more 
trustworthy, and more valuable than that of Graphology, 
and it is the aim of this volume to enable anyone to become 
a master of this most fascinating art. 

13 



CURIOUS FACTS Why do you raise your hat to a 
By Clifford Howard lady ? and why are you always 

careful to offer the right hand and 
not the left ? €][ Is there a good reason for the buttons on 
the sleeve of your coat? ^ How did your family name 
originate ? Q Is it true that it takes nine tailors to make a 
man, and if so, why, forsooth? 1$ These and scores of 
equally interesting questions find answers here. Open it at 
any page and you will see something you have wanted to 
know all your life. 

PRACTICAL PALMISTRY The hand shows the man, 
By Henry Frith hut many who believe in 

palmistry have found no 
ready access to its principles, fl This little guide to it is com- 
plete, trustworthy, and yet simple in arrangement. ^ With 
this book and a little practice anyone may read character 
surely, recall past events, and forecast the future. ^ Fully 
illustrated. 

CIVICS : This book answers a multitude 

What Every Citizen °f questions of interest to every- 
SKoilld KnOW one - ^ II § ives intelligent, con- 

By George Lewi $ cise ' and c ? m P lete information 

on such topics as the Monroe 
Doctrine, Behring Sea Controversy, Extradition Treaties, 
Basis of Taxation, and fully explains the meaning of Habeas 
Corpus, Free Coinage, Civil Service, Australian Ballot, and 
a great number of other equally interesting subjects. 

«3 



LAW, AND HOW TO MoSt legal difficulties arise 

KEEP OUT OF IT f rom ignorance of the minor 

By Paschal H. Coggins, Esq. P omts of law - <I This book 

furnishes to the busy man and 
woman knowledge of just such points as are most likely to 
arise in every-day affairs, and thus protects them against 
mental worry and financial loss. €[ Not only is this informa- 
tion liberally given, but every point is so explained and 
illustrated that the reader will not only understand the law 
on the subject, but cannot fail to remember it. 

CLASSICAL DICTIONARY All literature abounds 
By Edward S. Ellis, A. M. in classical allusions, but 

many do not understand 
their meaning. €[ The force of an argument or the beauty 
of an illustration is therefore often lost. €J To avoid this, 
everyone should have at hand a complete dictionary such as 
this. €| It contains all the classical allusions worth knowing, 
and they are so ready of access as to require little or no 
time in looking up. 

PLUTARCH'S LIVES Plutarch was the most famous 
By Edward S. Ellis, A. M. biographer and one of the most 

delightful essayists who ever 
lived. (I To him we are indebted for an intimate acquaint- 
ance with many famous Greeks and Romans who made 
history and who still live. €J This book is a condensed form 
of the original " Lives." €J All the personages likely to be 
inquired about are mentioned, and what is told of them is 
just what one most wishes to know. 

14 



APR 10 1912 



